The Geographical Journal $1492 INCLUDING THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE COUNCIL. EDITED BY THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. VOL. V.—Jaxvuary To June, 1895. LONDON : THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOOIETY, 1, Save Row; EDWARD STANFORD, 26 anv 27, Cocxspur Srreet, Cuartne Cross, S.W 1895. : AAPHiC S : i | PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLEs. 2 / — ) « ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, PATRON. HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN. VICE-PATRON. HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., K.T., K.P., G.C.B., &c., &c. Honorary Presidents. HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA, K.G., K.T., G.C.S.L, &c., &c. HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE DUKE OF YORK, K.G. COUNCIL (ELECTED 277TH MAY, 1895). President—C ements R. Markuam, ©.B., F.R.S., F.S.A. Vice-Presidents. W. T. Bianrorp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. | General R. Srracuzy, R.E., C.S.L, Hon. G. C. Bropricx. | F.R.S. Hon. Grorce N. Curzon, M.P. | Rear-Admiral W. J. L. Wuarton, Sir Gerorce D. 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The privileges of a Fellow include admission (with one Friend) to all ordinary Meetings of the Society, and the use of the Library and Map-room. Each Fellow is also entitled to receive a copy of all the Society’s periodical publications. The Geographical Journal is forwarded, free of expense, to all Fellows whose addresses are known. Copies of the Regulations and Candidates’ Certificates may be had on application at the Society’s Office, 1, Savile Row, London, W. = CONTENTS. Authors are alone responsible for their respective statements. No.1. January. PAGE Across Southern Bashan. By G: Robinson Lees 1 Notes in Eastern Mashonaland. By W. Alfred Eckersley - 27 Notes on Mr, Selous’s Map of Mashonaland and Manika. By E.G. Ravenstein 46 The German Expedition to Adamawa. By Dr. Passarge.. 50 Mount Brown and the Sources of the Athabasca. By Professor A. P. Coleman, PH.D., School of Practical Science, 'l'oronto .. .. 53 The Westland Alps, New Zealand... 61 The Glacial Land-Forms of the Margins of the Alps. By Hugh R Robert Mill, D.8C., F.RS.E. .. 68 Survey of the Macclesfield Bank, ‘South China Meetings of the Royal Geographical Society Geographical Literature of the Month... .. .. .. Kelat ez Zerka_... 9 Route of Mr. G. Robinson Lees across Southern i Longitudinal Section along Mr. Eckersley’s Route from Chimoio to Salisbury 32 River Odzi, at Junction with the River Odzani 35 Mashona Kraal on River Mezi .. .. .. .. 39 General View of Westland Alps. Ranges from Cook River-bed_.. 64 View overlooking Franz Josef Glacier from Looking up Fox Glacier. Map of Mashonaland and Manika .. 96 Map showing Mr. Coleman’s Route to Mount Brown and the Sources of the ener River No. 2. February. Kolgueff Island. By Aubyn Trevor-Battye, F.1.s. .. An Artistic. Expedition to the North Pole. By Julius v. . Payer ; 106 Crater-Lakes North of Lake Nyasa, with a Suggestion as to the Origin of Central African Lakes: By Dr: D. Kerr- ere Dr. Donaldson Smith’s Expedition to Somaliland .. 124 The Development of Certain English Rivers. By William Morris Davis, Professor of Physical Geography, Harvard University .. .. .. 127 t vi CONTENTS. The Great Siberian Railway. By P. Kropotkin Dr. Sven Hedin’s Travels in Central Asia .... Admiral Brine’s ‘ Amongst American Indians.’ By Clements R. “Markham, F.B.S. 158 Mrs. Bishop in Korea, China, ‘and Russian Manchuria... .. .. .. « 160 Dr. Ten Kate’s ‘Travels in the Indian Meetings of the Royal Geographical Society New Kolgueff: from a Sketch-Map supplied by Mr. A. Trevor-Battye mm 100 The Crater-Lakes. “Retnction of a Sketch-Map supplied by Mr. Kerr-Cross 117 Sketch-Map—Dr. Donaldson Smith’s Route in Western Somaliland .. e- 125 Diagrams illustrating Professor Davis's Paper on English Rivers 182-142 Map—The ‘Great Siberian Railway . No. 3. March. The British Central Africa Protectorate. By H. H. Johnston, o.3., H.M. Commissioner in British Central Africa .. A Pre-Columban Discovery of America. By H. Yule Oldham, M.A. ais 221 Note on Mr. Yule Oldham’s Theory of the weeigtciadies of America in 1447. By the President .. 239 A a to Turkistan. By Captain H. Bower... 240 The Falls of the Tsang-po (San-pu), and Identity ‘of that River with the Brahmaputra. By Surgeon-Major L. A. Waddell .. .. «+ 258 M. Obrucheff’s Explorations in Mongolia .. .. 260 Physical Geography at the Vienna Gacteneis mi 266 Geographical Work by the ea oe» of Canada in 1894. By Dr. G. M. Dawson, ¢.M.G., F.R.S... 268 Correspondence Maps anpD —View the -- 195 View near Murchison Falls Raphia Palms... 199 A View of Morambala Mountains from the Zomba Peak, Mount Mlanje Gorge on Mount ae Pine Forests on Mount nee Widdringtonia Whytei_ 213 Sketch of Map by Andrea Bianco, A.D. 1448 .. 222 Portion of Andrea Bianco’s Map, a.p. 1448 .. 224 Signature of Andrea Bianco’s Map 226 The Ixola Otinticha, from Enlarged Photograph .. 226 Portion of Martin Behaim’s ; Globe, A.D. 1492 ., 228 Falls of the Tsang-po (San-pu) . 259 Map of the British Central Africa Protectorate 288 PAGE 146 CONTENTS, No. 4. April. The Luchu Islands and their Inhabitants. By Basil Hall Chamberlain, Emeritus Professor of Japanese and in the PAGE of Japan .. on 289 A Journey to Tafilet. By Walter B. Harris. es ke Four Months of Travel in British Guiana. Ly George G. Dixon .. .. .. 337 A Journey round Melville Bay. By Eivind Astrup oa ak ok) Sa Count Gitzen’s Journey across Equatorial Africa .. The Challenger Publications. By Hugh Robert Mill, p. The Sixth International Geographical Congress... .. Baron Toll’s Expedition to Arctic Siberia... Meetings of the Royal Geographical Society New Maps . . - Ge Nase, the Port of Oshima .. .. .. .. .. 807 Common Peopleof Naa .. .. .. .. 812 A Luchuan Gentleman... 318 Sketch-Map showing Route of Astrup’ 8 Sledge- Journey to Melville Bay 347 Sketch-Map of Melville Bay. By Eivind Astrup 349 Profile of the North Shore of Melville Bay .. 353 Sketch-Map—Lieut. Count von Gitzen’s Expe- dition across Africa, 1894 .. 357 Map ean Anglo-French Boundary near Sierra Right Honourable Lord Aberdare de Map of the’ Luchu Islands, to illustrate Mr. P Basil Hall Chamberlain’s Paper.. .. 408 Map—Mr. W. B. Harris’s Routes between Morocco and 'lafilet .. .. 408 Map—Part of British Guiana and Venezuela .. 408 Map—Mr. G. G. Dixon’s nthe ely Fall of the River Barima from the _— Falls to the Source .... 408. No. 5. May. Chitral, Hunza, and the Hindu Kush. By Captain IF’. E. Younghusband, c.1.x., Indian Staff Corps.. .. fe 409 Three Years’ Travel in the Congo , Free State. By S.L. Hinde .. 426. The Luchu Islands and oer Inhabitants. By Basil Hall Chamberlain, Emeritus Professor of Japanese and Philology in the Imperial University of Japan .. 446. The Biography of Sir Bartle Frere.—Review. “By Sir Frederic J. Goldsmid, K.0.8.1., 0.B. es 462 The Triangulation of Africa, By General E. F. “Chapman, 490 Meetings of the Royal Geographical Society w Maps... Midsummer towards Chitral 412 Rakapushi 414 ii 387 CONTENTS. Chitral Valley, looking South Chitral Bridge and Tirach Mir .. .. Chitral Fort, from South Bank of River . Nyangwe .. .. Waginia Village .. Floating Island on the Lualaba .. Native Canoe on the Lualaba .. .. Water-worn Rocks on the Lualaba .. Tattooed Hands .._.. Luchuan Coiffures Luchuan Grave .. Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, Bart. .. Map of Chitral and Adjacent Countries. By Captain F. E. Younghusband, Map of Part of the South-Eastern Congo Basin Map of the Neotropical Region, —_— its Division into Four Subregions .. No. 6. June. Explorations through the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula, 1893-1894. By A. P. Low, 1 B.8., Geological Survey of Canada Map of the Labrador Peninsula to illustrate Paper by A. P. Low, B.s. 513 The Luchu Islands and their Inhabitants. By Basil Hall Chamberlain, Emeritus Professor of Japanese and in the Imperial of Japan .. 534 Upon a Visit to Tsavo and the Taita Highlands. By C. W. Hobley « « Notes of a Journey in Northern Mongolia in 1893. es A.A. Boras, late Bombay Civil Service .. , 562 Note on Mr. Borradaile’s Paper. ‘By Ney Elias” - 572 Dr. Penck on the Morphology of the Earth’s Surface. Review. By Professor Charles Lapworth, F.n.s. .. 575 Hydrographic Research to the North uf Scotland —.. 581 The Antarctic’s Voyage to the Antarctic. By C. Bgebers Borchgrevink 583 The Eleventh German 589 The Monthly Record _.. 592 Obituary .. 599 Meetings of the Royal Geographical Society 603 Geographical Literature of the Month 603 New Maps . 609 Sketch of the ‘l'aita Mountains. By C. W. Kisigdu Kilibasi_.. 555 The Country between Mombasa and Vanga, showing the Routes of C. W. spar 8, 559 View in the Gobi Desert 563 Inside Fort, Kobdo 565 High Street, Kobdo.. 567 “Om Mani Padme Hom,” | in W hite ‘Stones on Hillside.. .. 569 Starting for the Sandhills a 571 Chart (from the Aduwiralty Obart) to to show the Track of the Antarctic 585 Entrance to the Zangwa River .. 596 viii : PAGE .. 416 420 433 435 436 : 437 440 447 448 451 491 512 512 512 The Geographical Journal. No. 1. JANUARY, 1895, Vou. V. ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. By G. ROBINSON LEES. Bene a resident in Jerusalem, and knowing something of the language, I had opportunities seldom afforded to Europeans of seeing the country and forming an acquaintance with its people. And as I travelled at a ‘time of the year when no visitors are expected—the summer—and in a very humble way without tents and their accompanying camp-followers, I was able to get through many places without being particularly noticed. As I had already made several excursions on the east of the Jordan, my plans for crossing Southern Bashan, from Amman to Salkad in the Jebel Druze, were easily prepared. Only two difficulties pre- sented themselves—how to escape the notice of the soldiers attached to the Kaimakamalik of Es Salt; and how to avoid the Bedawin, who were then in a state of great excitement on account of the fighting that was going on between the Beni Sakr and Rawallah. To this latter circum- stance I now attribute the success of my undertaking, as the different tribes were apparently too busy with their own affairs to notice mine. But another obstacle quickly appeared; no natives of Jerusalem, who have a wholesome fear of the Bedawin, would accompany me unless I promised to procure an escort. I had a pleasant recollection of kindly treatment by the Circassians on a former journey, in spite of the evil reputation they bear in the country, and therefore determined if possible to make use of them. Armed with a letter of recommendation to the Reis el Bellady of Amman, Mohammed Effendi, I left Jerusalem with a party of seven, on August 22 last year (1893), which included another Englishman besides myself, also a resident in the Holy City, Mr. E.G. Hensman. I had never before travelled with so large a number, and if it had not been No. I.—Janvary, 1895.] B é 2 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. for the sake of carrying provisions and water from the Zerka, I would have dispensed with at least three of them. One advantage of travel- ling in summer is the absence of rain, and beds and tents may be left behind, though on this occasion we took with us a small square luncheon tent, which, for the amount of usage it received, might have spared us the trouble of carrying. We spent the first night on the banks of the Jordan, near the wooden bridge, which had only recently been prepared. It was a particularly disagreeable one, as neither the time of the year nor place is calculated to encourage sleep, and it was not improved when our thirst had to be quenched by the tepid water of the historic river. We were ready to start long before sunrise, but the bridge was full of animals, and we could not pass. They had collected during the night, and would have continued to increase in number, if we had not roused the soldiers who were in charge of the quarantine station there to open the gate, as the latter are disinclined to examine passengers at intervals, preferring to wait until morning, when most of the day’s work can be done at once. The scene that delayed us was very lively, as some of the men in charge of the animals either had no money or pretended to have none to pay the toll, and eventually left part of their clothing in pledge until their return. The fees are, half-piastre for a man, donkey, or load, one piastre for a horse, and two piastres for a camel. When we had passed over the wooden structure, we espied several men in the bushes on the side of the road, busily engaged in relieving one donkey at the expense of another, in order to save the half-piastre toll. Before we reached the hills we met a party of the Nimr tribe, who asked for our escort; but one of our men, an old servant of mine, was ready with an answer before I could interpose, and replied, that we had expected to see him at the river, and would likely meet him further on, as he knew the direction we should take. We rested at Arak el Emir, a ruin which has often been described, and found the top stone of the wall very tottering. Some young members of the Beni Abbad drew our attention to it by showing us how it would rock, and very likely the next travellers will find it lying on the ground in spite of the admoni- tions we left behind us. From Kasr el Abd, the Arabic name of these Jewish remains, we rode up Wadi Seir. Very few valleys in Palestine equal this in natural woodland beauty. From the oleanders that fringe the little stream that runs along the bottom, a succession of trees clothe its sides in plentiful profusion. Here and there the evergreen oaks form a thicket, and then spread out into an open glade, that gives the gentle slope a park-like appearance. Green grass that had not been changed by the summer sun bordered the rushes that grew near the water's edge, and pleasantly reminded us of an English meadow. As the wadi narrows, its sides assume a lofty and precipitous aspect, whose beauty is enhanced by a thick growth that more closely | ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 3 resembles a forest. Several old mills lie unused and desolate along the stream, while others have been repaired since the advent of the Circassians, and are now worked by industrious tenants. On our way to the spring below the village at the head of this valley, we passed a group of Circassian boys shooting at a mark, a very suggestive scene for the future occupation of the Belka. We camped in a brick-field, on the other side of which were the pilgrims from Mecca bound for Hebron. They had left the quarantine station at Kelat ez Zerka that morning, and, according to the information they had brought with them, so had the Kaimakam of Es Salt and some soldiers; but, happily for us, they were spending the night at Amman, and, what was still more fortunate, their destination on the morrow was Madeba, yet further away. Although we were invited by the Circassians to take up our quarters in the “guest house,” we declined with many thanks, even when we heard there was a wedding in the village, but at the same time made ourselves agreeable to the succession of visitors that called upon us, some of whom were interested in the items of news we had brought from Jerusalem. The village, lying on the hillside surrounded by the oaks of Wadi Seir, is very picturesque, and one of the prettiest spots in the country. There is an air of prosperity about the settlement, and the stranger- people seem happy and contented. Every year their numbers increase, and they gain a firmer footing in the land of their adoption. The woods ring with the sound of their axes; and a saw-mill, worked by hand as yet, prepares boards for the Jerusalem market. The bricks, which I examined close to our resting-place, were made of mud and bits of straw (tibin), and then dried in the sun. Perhaps the term “bricks” is incorrect, as they are not composed of any very plastic material, and cannot be burnt, but seem rather like slabs of dried earth, about three inches thick, six wide, and afoot long. They are used for building purposes, and the tiny square houses formed by them, when yellow-washed, are substantial and comfortable-looking. We left next morning late enough to give the local governor ample time to be well on his way to Madeba, which is now a permanent military post, and, after two hours’ riding along a road marked by cart- wheels, we arrived at Amman. If the writers who have described these remarkable ruins were to visit the site of Rabbath Ammon and Philadelphia now, they would be very much astonished. The change that had taken place since my first visit three years before was most marked, ‘The population had increased to the number of one thousand Circassians, besides Arab shopkeepers from Es Salt. Twostreets had been formed, one for shops alone, and nearly all the houses were surrounded by a yard enclosed by a wall of stone. A market of considerable im- portance, where grain may be sold and various articles purchased, enables the Bedawin of the Belka to remain in their own country. B 2 4 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. Fresh meat can be bought almost every day in the week, and there is actually a baker’s shop. Most of the corn of the Belka is brought here, and afterwards sent in charge of Circassians to Jerusalem, who are well able to take care of it, and themselves as well. They have built houses, not of mud slabs like their brethren of Wadi Seir, but of stones, the remains of former buildings. They have had no thought of preserving the relics of by-gone glories, but, with the ruthless hands of homeless people, have adapted the massive masonry to the practical uses of every- day life. Nearly all the inscriptions have disappeared, even the huge granite pillars have been cut to pieces, and instead of heaps of stones there is now an active and prosperous colony. ‘The ground in the neighbourhood is well cultivated, and the roads are no longer bridle- paths, but wide enough for the wooden and wicker carts of the people. Jerash, unlike Amman, is still left untouched. The Circassian settle- ment, though larger there, flourishes on the opposite side of the stream to the old city, and the relics of the Romans repose in their solitary grandeur. The Mudir, Abdul Hamid, is a man of some learning, and finds pleasure in preserving the beautiful remains that lie within sight of the modern town. It would not have been possible for the residents in Amman to have exhibited the same care, on account of the formation of the valley into which they were placed. There was no other avail- able piece of land on which they could settle. They were therefore compelled to make the best of the situation as they found it, and the stones that lay ready to hand. Chased from their homes by the Russians, and again compelled to abandon their new settlements on the western shores of the Black Sea by the Russo-Turkish war, they were offered by the Sultan an asylum in this strange land. That they have now attained a position of strength and importance in the district, speaks well for their courage, fortitude, and industry. When first they arrived they had many troubles, all of which were not entirely due to their neighbours. They are now a power to be reckoned with, though as yet they have maintained peaceful relations with the various Bedawin tribes by which they are surrounded. At first they were looked upon with indifference, but when their numbers grew it changed to hatred mingled with fear; but they were even then a match for the’ Beda- win, as the following story will show. When tley were poor and could ill afford to entertain strangers in the hospitable manner expected across the Jordan, their resources were sorely tested by the repeated visits of the neighbouring tribesmen, all of whom were anxious to see the new-comers. This intercourse received its first impetus by the lavish way in which the guests were treated. And as no one likes a good dinner better and cheaper than a Bedawi, there was a succession of calls on the flocks and herds that made it necessary for the Circassians to devise some means in order that they might find a way in which they could retain the pleasant relations that existed with their neigh- 3 { { 4 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 5 bours, and at the same time preserve their sheep. At last they hit upon a plan that succeeded beyond all expectation. They killed a donkey for the next arrivals, and took care to place prominently on the trencher its hoofs amongst the rice. No sooner were the guests squat round the dinner, than one and all arose in great confusion. “What is this?” said one, as he held in his hand a donkey’s hoof. “What have we to eat?” asked another. “Donkey?” “ Yes, donkey,” was the reply. “ The flesh of that animal is our choicest morsel, and we therefore offer it to you.” It was enough. The sheep in future were spared, as no Bedawi wished to eat the homely beast that might again be set before them. In placing the Circassians in the Jaulan (where there is a still larger colony at Canatra), Ajlun, and the Belka, the Sultan has opened out a scheme for the occupation of the country that will materially change its present aspect. They are not only amenable to the laws of the Turks, and strict Mohammedans, but industrious and thrifty. Many are skilled artisans, and others farmers with some European experience. Besides, they are brave, and in many cases trained to war. The most lucrative posts in Damascus are held by this nation, and a large percentage of the military officers in Syria belong to the same race. Nature has also endowed them with other qualities less deserving of praise than those above mentioned, but these belong also to the Bedawin, who lack many of the better ones possessed by them. A- Bedawi will not work, and does riot care for fighting unless his side outnumbers that of his antagonist. The only worthy trait of character owned by these sons of Ishmael is hospitality, and it is justly esteemed, but if practised without a requisite supply of the necessary elements it reduces the extravagant to penury, or compels him to resort to an illegitimate method of obtaining the wherewithal to keep up his reputation. That many of the sheikhs are in the pay of the Govern- ment is asign of their waning power, both as regards wealth and prestige. Even the great sheikh of the Rawallah, who has recently been created a pasha, no longer occupies the position he once held in the estimation of his brethren in the desert. His connection with the Government and the assistance it rendered has enabled him to avenge defeat of his tribe in 1885 by the Beni Sakr, but the latter are still looked upon as the champions of the anti-Turkish party, and respected accordingly ; while the Adwan chief, Ali Diab, is little better than a police inspector. The Sultan, then, in degrading the Bedawin and lessening their numbers on the one hand, is creating in their stead settlers that will sooner or later push them further into the desert, or compel them to adopt the same means of earning their living that they themselves possess. This retrograde movement of the Bedawin, if it can be so termed, is very apparent to any one who is acquainted with the tactics pursued by the officials of the Sultan towards his nominal 6 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. subjects, but it is the course usually taken by all Governments when developing the resources of a country. It has one ill effect—it turns many into thieves and robbers that were otherwise less disposed to that form of annoyance; but it also furnishes the Government with a further excuse for weakening their power, in its efforts to capture and punish offenders. Where a few years ago these people lived in contentment, that is as far as their avaricious nature would permit them, we find them full of complaint—of the soldiers, Circassians, and Government. They cling more tenaciously to their land, and resist by force any encroachment ; but they are on the losing side, and before long the progress of events across the Jordan will have developed so far as to BOSRA AND THE ROMAN KOAD. dispossess the present lords of the soil, and place in their stead a people not only more industrious, but more religious, and more inclined to pay the taxes. The change that is now going on over the Jordan will develop the natural resources of the provinces occupied by the new settlers, but whether it will yield a corresponding degree of peace and happiness remains to be seen. The country south of the Hauran, Southern Bashan, is yet untrodden by the Turk, except on the line of march to Mecca. It belongs absolutely to the Bedawin and Druzes, and is at times frequented by those who perhaps never saw an Official, or at any rate would not acknowledge either his authority or that of his imperial master. It is usually represented on maps by a blank space, or a band of colour that marks this region as the most eastern boundary of Palestine, south and west of Salkad; while other maps in addition contain from one to four lines hesitatingly drawn across the country. These lines show all : } ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 7 that is apparently known of that region. On no two maps are they the same, but the two that commence at Kelat ez Zerka and run north- east and north-west respectively have the most common likeness. They are supposed to show the old Roman road, and the modern pilgrim way to Mecca. Their appearance on any map is due, the first to the existence of the “ Tabule Peutingeriane,” that show a road in use during the Roman occupation some fifteen hundred years ago, from and to certain known points, Bosra and Philadelphia (Amman) ; the second, to the knowledge that the Haj road, the route of the Mohammedan pilgrims, runs between two other known points. The other lines sometimes found on maps running from west to east indicate -valleys which do not exist as marked. That this part of the country was important in past ages is well known. It was the first land possessed by the Israelites, who overran its fields and captured “the fenced cities” of Og, its king. As Salkad was the most eastern city of Bashan, we may naturally suppose that some of the people of that country lived on the west of it, and possibly also to the south. When the Romans were all-powerful east of the Jordan, there were many cities in this district, remains of which still exist, for the land is fertile, and parts of it even now under cultivation. I was, therefore, not at all surprised to find ruins that establish a closer connection still, seeing that a public highway ran through the land. I believe there was a time, now long passed away, when this part of the country was full of life; when Moab and Bashan were joined by cultivated fields; when Roman Bosra and Philadelphia were connected by a continuous stream of trade and pleasure; when this tract of land, now only traversed by the pilgrim caravan, was a highway not less in use and importance than any other in Palestine. The line of march annually taken by the Haj is usually supposed to form the border of a desert plain. The expression “across the Haj road” is frequently used to mean a region parched and dry, as flat as a board, and inhabited by Bedawin nomads. This is not altogether true. Beyond this road are hills and dales, and trees and flowers. Burckhardt collected some very valuable information, but failed to reach Umm el Jemal, and, after many attempts to proceed south of Bosra, retired to the north. Dr. Eli Smith, and before him Bucking- ham, on the way from Bosra to Salkad along the beaten track of the old Roman road, obtained from the natives lists of names of ruins. Mr. Douglas Freshfield journeyed from Jerash to Bosra and Salkad across the country from Gilead into Bashan. But, as far as I can learn, no Englishman ever made any excursion to the south of Bosrah direct, or from Salkad to the west, except Sir Cyril Graham, Bart., and he was the first to see Umm el Jemal and the ruins round Salkad. Two eminent Frenchmen, Count de Vogiié and M. Waddington, followed in his footsteps as far west as Umm el Jema!: and Dr. Selah 8 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. Merrill, an American, on one occasion visited these interesting ruins from Bosra, returning again to the same starting-point. Between the Zerka and Umm el Jemal, or east of the above-mentioned stream, no one had ever been, and even the Bedawin round Amman knew nothing whatever about it. When I took my letter to the chief of the Circassian community, he collected his friends and made inquiries, yet no reliable information was obtainable, except that one day’s journey from Kelat ez Zerka there is another pilgrim station, Khan el Fedheen. No Arab would venture with us, and for a long time the Circassians refused to be persuaded. All agreed that it was full of danger and a favourite battle-ground of the Rawallah and Beni Sakr. After a while, when I had said that I would go without an escort, and bid them good-bye, the thought of the sum I had offered caused them to more favourably consider the matter, and it was at length decided that two should accompany us, on condition that I provided food and water for the journey. We started the following morning with Mahmood Aga and Mustapha Effendi, the latter the brother of the Reis, and rode down the side of the Zerka. I now began to realize the one drawback to summer travelling—the country is dressed in its worst coat; yet even for this there is some compensation. A description of its appearance in the hot season is a change of subject, as all travelling in Palestine is done when the effect of the rain has not altogether disappeared. It is much more pleasant at that time, and certainly cooler; but a complete account of its appearance cannot be given, nor can any estimate be formed of the radical change that takes place after the sun has expended its power on the face of the land for two or three months. And if at this season grass and flowers are found, and ground under cultivation, the conclusion may very naturally be drawn that the soil is fertile and there is no desert. Though the Zerka, whose source is close to Amman, seemed shallow, it was from 5 to 7 yards wide, and full of fish. In half an hour it gradually oozed through the sand and pebbles of its bed and was lost, but in twenty minutes more (about a mile) it appeared again, stronger than ever. In three other places it disappeared, but not for so long a distance, how far I cannot exactly say, as the border of oleanders hid the exact spot from view. About halfway down from Amman to Kelat ez Zerka, or, more correctly speaking, one hour and thirty-five minutes from our starting-point, a small stream from the north joined the Zerka. On the way down we saw many kingfishers darting hither and thither over the bright waters, and partridges along the hillsides; here and there a solitary butm tree, and always oleanders, though the latter were stunted and sparse where there was no water. No doubt in winter there is a much larger stream that fills the entire length of the river- bed, and then they look more fresh and strong. Traces of Bedawin a | 4 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. encampments appeared in the wider parts of the valley, and scattered ruins told of a time when it was occupied by a busy people. But the most unusual sight was a flock of griffon vultures intent on objects that engaged their attention until we were close upon them. The stench that rose in front of us as we approached quickly brought to our notice the carcases on which they were feeding. We had now reached the place where the Haj road from the south first crosses the Zerka, and enters the plain in the valley that is annually used as the camping- place of the pilgrims. Remembering the many cholera stories we had heard, and knowing that this was a quarantine station vacated but two days before, we lost no time in crossing it. The scene was desolation | | | KELAT EZ ZERKA. itself, and as it extended for more than a mile, it enabled us to form some idea of the size of the camp. We counted forty-six dead camels in various stages of decomposition, some apparently having only just expired, while the bones of others were picked quite clean. But a more saddening sight was yet before us—seven graves fresh and newly made, each a little mound of earth surrounded by loose stones. Old rags, tins, and tattered slippers told the story of the weary way from Mecca; but the little heaps of sandy earth appealed more strongly to the feelings, as the marks of the last stage of life’s journey. We arrived at the ford below the hill on which the castle stands after riding three hours and a quarter, and there unpacked our things in order to rearrange and more equally distribute the baggage when our future water-supply was prepared. While the men filled the water- | 10 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. skins (six large kerbys) and made ready for the unknown region beyond the hill, H——, the two Circassians, Achmed, one of our men, and I rode up to the castle to take photographs and bearings. On reaching the building, which is very modest in its dimensions, we looked anxiously and carefully in the direction of our proposed route, but nothing but a succession of bare and conical hills, with intervening valleys, could be seen for miles. These seemed to fade in the distance into one long blue line, from which there rose a mountain chain, faintly visible. In order to get a better view and take bearings, we turned our attention to the castle. The stones of which it is composed are larger than those usually employed for building purposes now, but they lack that massive appear- ance that suggests defensive strength. It is square, and consists of a central tower of no great height, surrounded by a lofty wall, in which are many compartments, arched and vaulted, with one entrance closed by a door sheathed with iron. It is not permanently occupied, and, except when soldiers reside there during the progress of the Haj, it is a sort of “Tom Tiddler’s ground,” and belongs to those who for the time being live within the outer wall. It commands a fine view of the surrounding country, barren and desolate, the tameness of which is relieved only on the side which contains the winding Zerka. Yet the ruins that are visible in this neighbourhood are very numerous, and suggest a different scene, which it is possible to revive. I gave my horse to Achmed, and turned to the closed door with the intention of mounting the central tower, or outer wall, to take bearings and photographs, but found it fastened on the inside with a long piece of wood. A little shaking moved this bolt, and the door opened. Mustapha Effendi followed me in, and while he turned to tether his horse I glanced hastily round the open space between the central tower and outer structure. Lying on the ground were three men apparently asleep, and by the side of each lay a rifle bright and new. Their faces were covered by their kuffyichs, their feet were bare, and their legs only partially hidden under the folds of very ragged abyahs. I called the Circassian’s attention to the sleeping men, and he at once turned to leave the place, waving his hand for me to go in front. We pulled the door after us, and quickly mounted our horses. Arms were at once seized, and we moved slowly from the shadow of the castle wall, then waited some minutes in silence. Not one made his appearance, so we left the hill and rode down to the stream below, from whence we saw two of the men standing on the castle wall looking towards us. Who and what they were we could not easily define; nor could we say if they were more in number than we had seen. They had no horses, were badly dressed, yet well armed, and must have heard us open the door and enter the building, but they never spoke. They might have even been aware of our approach from the distance, yet they hid their faces from us and feigned sleep. Their appearance was suspicious, and >: | : t ; ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 11 the Circassians at once pronounced them Jaish, robbers. They must have found us too strong to attack, and in order to avert suspicion pretended to be asleep. When we reached the water there was some talk of a return to Amman, but I was determined to push on at all hazard, as I was sure we had the stronger party, or the attack would not have been so long delayed, unless they thought we were afraid and would return, though that would not have suited their purpose. The Circassians then said they would go up again and speak to the men ; if they were attacked, and we heard firing, we were to follow and help them. My chances of photographing the country from the castle being spoilt, I set to work at the ford, taking one on each side. The Haj road is at least a mile from the castle, and could not therefore be brought in the picture. I took special notice of this, as I had hitherto supposed that the castle stood on the side of the pilgrim road, as it is usually marked so on maps, whereas it is about as far from the Haj road as it is from the ford, the place from which the photograph is taken. I missed one picture that would not only have been interesting, but unique: a hyena, after gorging himself at the feast of camels behind us, leisurely mounted the hill in front. Still more unfortunate, we had no rifles, and the Circassians had naturally carried theirs with them, and the beast was soon out of the range of our guns. When the men returned in peace with their rifles, he had disappeared. They said there were seven men in the castle; they had spoken to them from a distance, but could make nothing of them whatever, but they were quite sure they were robbers and belonged to no respectable tribe. One of our men, on hearing this, tried to sneak away with a horse and return to Amman; but I quickly gave them all to understand that, as soon as the baggage was on the animals, we should march along the road over the hill. Our escort made no further demur, and we were soon on our way. Starting at two o’clock in the afternoon, we rode on until half-past seven in the evening, spend- ing a little more than half an hour on the way at a ruined town we discovered. From the hill that we ascended, on a spur of which the castle stands, we were traversing entirely new ground, unknown and unexplored. For nearly five hours we followed the direction of the Haj road, taking bearings all the way. It differs in no way from what I have seen of it before near M‘Shetta, and in the more northern part of the Hauran, but is well defined, consisting of numbers—in some cases I counted fifty—of footpaths, running more or less parallel with each other. On reaching the top of the hill we entered a small plateau, the only level piece of land that could be seen, bounded on all sides by hills except in the direction of the road. To the right of us, some seven minutes from our path, were columns, exactly like the Roman milestone on the Damascus road near Shafat, about two miles from Jerusalem. Fifteen minutes further on the road we found three more, one in situ ; te ‘ 12 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. and for nearly five hours along this route we met with these columns, all exactly alike, and separated from each other by intervals that averaged fifteen minutes, or a multiple of thisnumber. On one of them were letters barely legible. Most of them were badly chipped, as if the pilgrims had battered them. In no case were they smooth; while in others Arabic letters were traced on them with a blunt instrument and by unskilled hands; on more than one there were faint tracings of Roman letters, but unintelligible. I know of no map that does not make the Haj road and the old Roman road diverge at Kelat ez Zerka— that is, if they are marked at all—according to the two lines I have before mentioned as representing them. This, then, is a most important discovery—that for four hours and a half, at least, from the hill south of Kelat ez Zerka, these two roads follow practically the same route, which is marked by Roman milestones, and in one place the set stones of the road, and, as we saw it, the remains of the caravan that passed two days before us. After being on the march one hour, we saw a ruin to the south-east perched on one of the hills about an hour away, possibly the remains of some fortress—an outpost probably, the bottom part of which seemed vaulted, as half of it looked towards us dark and hollow. The hills to the east are in many places huddled close together, with very little space between them—so much so, that as soon as one is descended the ascent of the other begins. This outlook of rounded hilltops is varied occa- sionally by a small plateau, but the tameness is still the same. Before we lost sight of the ruin on the south-east we struck a dry torrent bed that came from the hills. Along its winding course were many ever- green oaks, and on one side a jagged seam of chert peeped from the eastern limestone hill. From a distance it looked like a ruined wall. So far we had seen no wady, but the road we were following was a well- defined and undulating plain between two ranges of hills, that were higher on the western than the eastern side. We passed a new grave on the roadside, and an older one with a headstone; and where the plain was widest we saw some scattered stones on the side of a hill, some of which were heaped together; but not the slightest semblance of a road or path had we seen on either side until we had been riding one hour and forty minutes. Before we turned due east along this, the first path we had discovered, we had noticed that the plain, down which ran the watercourse, was sloping towards the foot of some higher hills than we had yet seen. A rift between them pointed to a wadi as the destina- tion of the dry torrent bed. We crossed the watercourse some distance before it reached the wadi in front, where there were signs of a bridge that had been removed and lost in the boulders of the winter stream, and followed the path above mentioned, as it led upon the hillside to a plateau covered with withered grass and alkali bushes. As we rude along we saw traces of an encampment and the recent track of a horse- : t ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN, 13 man. This plain shelved down to the wadi that ran through the cleft that we had seen in the hills of the west, but on its south-eastern side the hills rose peak after peak far out to the horizon. It was several miles in length, and from one to three across. In the distance we descried some smoke, and then saw two men burning the alkali shrub that grows so plentifully here, but they disappeared at our approach, and nothing could unearth them. The path we had followed now led into the wadi, and by its side were the remains of several vaulted apartments, which at first looked like tombs, but afterwards appeared to be the lower rooms of some building let into the ground like cellars. Possibly into such a hiding-place the alkali-burners took refuge at the sight of strangers. Beyond these vaults and the heaps of basaltic stones around them were the set stones of the Roman road and fallen columns. We went along the route indicated by these stones, and there joined the Haj road as it crossed the wadi. But as we turned down the path into the wadi to do this, we met two men and a woman with a donkey, on which were well-filled water-skins. We stopped them and asked some questions. They said the name of the valley was Wadi Dhulail, and that it came from the east, from the plain before Salkad. (Its course as we saw it was from south-east to north-west.) They further informed us that they belonged to the Beni Hassan, and had brought the water from their camp in the west for the alkali-burners. This was an obvious falsehood, but we allowed them to proceed. However, the next state- ment was worse—that there was no*road of any kind to the east, and no water, and that the only road to Salkad was along the Haj road to Khan el Fedheen and then eastward, though they had never been themselves. I pointed out the path by which they had come—it was a well-defined and beaten track; but they readily answered that it went but a short distance along the side of the wadi, although it could be seen for more than a mile, and looked so well worn that it suggested the inference that it was a highway in constant use. It was four o’clock in the afternoon, and these people had with them two full kerbys of water. They had come from the east and were journeying westward. We did not think it wise to dispute with them, or even to show any desire to test the accuracy of their information by riding along the wadi, but turned aside. But at such an hour of the day and in such a place it was hardly possible to believe that water did not exist in some old well or cistern, or even a spring somewhere along the wadi from whence they came. Dr. Selah Merrill and his party rode along the course of the Zerka some distance to the west of this road, and the following extract from ‘ East of the Jordan,’ p. 396, has some important evidence on the direction of this wadi and its water-supply : “ Ain el Jirm is two hours forty-five minutes north of Kelat Zerka. Twenty minutes south of this point, a large wadi enters the Zerka valley from the east. It is called Wadi Dhulail, and I refer to it because it illustrates what a vast volume 14 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN, of water may sometimes flow in a wadi which is dry most part of the year. In this case, judging from the marks of the débris on the bushes and banks, this stream must have been from 50 to 70 yards wide, and from 3 to 6 feet deep—so deep that it would be impossible for animals to cross.” The distance between the point where we struck Wadi Dhulail and its mouth in the Zerka valley must be about 8 miles. We had been riding two hours to the north-east, and its entrance into the Zerka is two hours and twenty-five minutes north-west of the castle. 4. ROBINSON LEES acCROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN English Miles + Two points relating to Wadi Dhulail are thus proved: first, that its course is from south-east to north-west, where it is crossed by the Roman road and the Haj road, and from thence to its junction with the Zerka; and, secondly, that at one time of the year it contains “a vast volume of water.” We crossed it in twenty minutes, and passed on our way evergreen oaks and flowers, besides wild thyme and other bushes. A plain emerges from its northern side, which is marked by a Roman milestone. From this point, the commencement of the plain along the Haj road, to where it turns westward at the foot of the highest hill of its eastern border, it took us two hours, good hard riding—that is, of course, with luggage animals. But as soon as we entered it, we noticed, on the rising ground of the west, a ruined town, | a q cwifkvaced Cults vateds *s imm el Jema} : Thang | | Lice, fees | Quart ne Staton read 4 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 15 to which we turned our horses’ heads and reached at a quarter to five— two hours and forty-five minutes from Kelat ez Zerka, and six hours’ actual riding from Amman. It has a fine commanding position, over- looking a plain for some considerable distance both on its eastern and western sides. Few towns in Palestine occupy a position of greater excellence, on land more eminently fertile. As we approached the ruins we were struck by what appeared to be ground under cultivation and traces of gardens. On the south is a large cistern about 40 feet long, 20 feet wide, 20 feet deep, cut out of solid rock, and its sides covered with cement. The remains are scattered, though in places stones are heaped together and we could not pass, and cover an extent of ground that would take an hour to encircle. The deserted houses still stand with the lintel stones over the door-posts, all built of the same stone, basalt, and exactly in the same style as all the ruined towns of the Hauran. We recognized the remains of a church, and other buildings of like dimensions, but found no inscriptions, no doubt as we could only spare time, much to my regret, for a very cursory examination. We were all strangers in a hostile country, seen by people who always suspect that the presence of unknown horsemen means prospecting for a new camping-place, and we were much more open to suspicion on account of our companions, the Circassians, who are annually increasing in numbers, and taking up lands hitherto but lightly held. Besides, the only resting-place for the night that promised reasonable safety was, as we then thought, Khan el Fedheen, a pilgrim station far along the Haj road; so we had to push on, and the impatient escort beat the animals with their whips to increase the pace. Unfortunately, we had no means of ascertaining the name of this ruin; but from its position, the importance of its remains, and the site on which they stand, I have no hesitation in saying that when the “ Peutingerianw Tabule” were drawn up and issued in 393 a.D., it was known as Tuantia. This city, according to the Roman map, was on the road from Bosrah to Philadelphia, 24 miles from the former and 20 miles from the latter place. We had ridden from Amman (Phila- delphia) to this place in six hours; reckoning the little delays on the way in taking bearings and our chat with the Beni Hassan, that is equal to 20 miles. It is on the road now traversed by so many weary feet, where we found milestones and in one place set stones. And further, our camping-place that night, two more hours on the road towards Bosra, was almost due west of Umm el Jamal, which is five hours from that ancient city. That means that THantia is seven hours from Bosra, or twenty-four miles. We joined the road again from this place, which was as well marked as ever by the remains of the caravan that had passed but two days before, including two more dead camels and another grave. There were also more milestones and a wider plain. Far away in the distance 16 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. on the west we saw Neby Hid, which plainly showed that between the hills immediately to the west of us and the range on which it stands there are other hills and at least one wide valley or plain, and likely many more. Another interesting feature I noticed was that all the hills east of the Neby were of lower elevation. Many alkali- burners were scattered over the plain along which we were riding, who were busily preparing the ashes for transport to Nablus for the manufacture of soap. They seemed ill-disposed to answer questions, so we passed on with little gain beyond the information that there was a ruin on the summit of the highest hill ahead of us. When we reached the foot of it we left the Haj road, turning round its western side, and climbed up to the top in the dusk. This peak is not only the highest point of the range that borders the plain of Southern Bashan, but also the apex of that chain, and forms the northern limit of the hill district that runs up to a line with Umm el Jemal, two hours further east. On both its northern and eastern sides it slopes very gradually down to the great plain that stretches along the Hauran past Bosra on the north and as far as Salkad on the east. Bat on the south it abruptly stands as the northern boundary of the plain we had just traversed. The road winds round its western side and is lost to view, but the parallel range of hills continues its course to the north-west. We were too anxious about our preparations for the night to notice more than this general outline. But our attention was speedily drawn to the number of scattered stones, and walls enclosing folds for cattle, that extended a considerable distance down the gentle slope. These all seemed to increase in number as they diverged from one central rectangular wall. The stones at this middle point were very large with a rough face, but the other stones decreased in size in a similar ratio to their distance from the centre. Into this, the most important enclosure, we entered, unpacked our animals, and prepared for the night. In the very middle there was a large hole or cavern cut out of solid limestone rock. Its sides were very uneven, and there was no appear- ance of any cement on its walls, or we might have thought it was a cistern, A wild figtree occupied one corner, and a pile of stones filled up the centre. This irregular heap prevented a more detailed examina- tion of the interior. Several columns lay partially embedded in the surrounding earth, and other massive stones were heaped together in wild confusion. The number of open spaces and arrangement of walls showed that it had been often used on account of its being a post of observation, and advantageously situated in a position of comparative security. But at the same time, it was one of those outposts now occupied only by a transitory people, and not as a permanent abode. We were now in possession, and had to take the necessary precautions for our mutual protection, and the preservation of our animals and } q a i : 4 : ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 17 baggage. We refrained from lighting a fire and thus attracting attention, but were sufficiently hungry to eat heartily of a cold supper. All our things were collected and placed conveniently together; arms were examined, and the night divided into watches between H , the Circassians, and myself. As I patrolled the ruin in the moonlight with my Circassian companion, I could see distinctly the route by which we had come the day before: the valley plain bounded by two ranges of hills running north and south, a natural highway, and the only one to ‘be seen in the district; a road that still bears the marks of many feet ; one that has been used from time immemorial, and without doubt the way by which the Israelites marched to the grand tract of country that I could see on the north and east, stretching through the dim light into the darkness. What their feelings must have been when the wide expanse of country burst on their view as they turned round this hill, and the great plain of Bashan rolled before them, can be imagined by the naturally formed desire of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh to take possession of their inheritance without delay. I do not think that the country through which we had passed ever belonged to Moab, and therefore the Bozra and Beth Gamul that are often located on the eastern plain must be looked for further south. ‘The Umm el Jemal of Southern Bashan has no connection whatever, beyond the similarity of its name, with the Beth Gamul of the Old Testament. I quite believe the plain was covered with cities as far as the hills that surround Kelat ez Zerka, the boundary of the Ammonites, as no strong and capable ruler would have left such a magnificent territory untilled. And there is ample evidence, in the ruins that dot the plain, to show that during the Roman occupation it was full of people, and well cultivated; and though there are no marks that would identify the remains as belonging to a period before the Israelitish conquest, many of the sites have no doubt existed from before that time. Dew fell heavily during the night, and I was unable to take any photographs before starting, as the damp had penetrated my camera; but I took bearings, first along our route of the previous day, and then to what seemed in the distance the castle of Salkad. Between -our starting-place and the castle on the east was a wide plain, as it appeared to us early in the morning, unbroken by either hills or valleys. To the north we saw a ruin, which we thought was Khan el Fedheen, a pilgrim station, and we afterwards heard it was one hour ‘from this hill, which we were told was named El Hab. We rode down the eastern side of the hill and almost imperceptibly entered the plain, as the slope is so gradual. After riding for some time along the level ground, we found that it was by no means flat, though it usually appeared so in our immediate neighbourhood; yet some distance beyond, it rose and fell in long wave-like swells of No. I.—Janvary, 1895.] 18 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN, sufficient height to hide at times even such an object as the range of Druze mountains on the east. We never saw Umm el Jemal until we were within an hour of its ruins, although it was but two hours from our camping-place. We scanned the plain on all sides for any signs of life. A herd of gazelles scampered along in front, but no other living thing seemed near, not even a partridge or a hare, but we soon met with traces of Bedawin encampments. The only ruin we saw that did not consist of a central heap of stones surrounded by folds for cattle was one that seemed to be all that was left of a group of buildings attached to one central structure. It was never a city, unless a tremendous quantity of stones have been carried away ; it might have been a hamlet, as the houses in the Hauran were usually built close together, as if they rested on a central wall with large enclosures playing out in all directions. Yet from the distance it forms a land- mark that differs but slightly from the ruins that have been described as “giant cities,” and yet could not without exaggeration be called even towns. But away to the east, rising from the level of this Southern Bashan plain that stretched away to Jebel Druze, there rose a long black line jagged and irregular, which gradually developed, on nearer view, into something like a mass of ruins resembling a deserted town. On the outskirts of this desolate pile, lying far away from all that makes a city full of throbbing life, we saw first an old reservoir edged in by massive stones with a rough face. No wall or gate marked the city boundary, nor were there buildings conspicuous by their architectural beauty; but black basaltic stones, piled on one another without the adhering power of mortar, formed houses that for their size and lofti- ness have few equals in the whole of the land. The stony desolation into which we entered was not relieved in a single instance by a piece of either wood or metal. Everywhere was stone, except in the deserted squares enclosed by the buildings, and there intermingled with fallen masonry were weeds and withered grass. The houses were all built in the same way as those of the northern Hauran and Lejah; the second story, which is reached by a flight of steps on the outside of the structure, rests on arches made of a pile of stones, and long stones that jut regularly out of the wall afford additional support. Many of them were in an excellent state of preservation, and all seemed as if the inhabitants had left through a pestilence rather than the ravages of war; time alone appeared to have dismantled others, assisted by the wind and tempest. Several small churches were found in the confused mass of ruins on the western side. But on the north-west there was a large structure, the most conspicuous of all, with open spaces on every side, that evidently seemed to have been foremost in the esteem of the inhabitants. This was a large church, the sides of which had dis- appeared, but the arches forming the nave were beautifully preserved, : : Bi — i i ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 19 with a cross on each side. It was built in an east and westerly direc- tion, with an apse at the former end still left entire and covered with cement. Over the entrance on the western side was a stone which seemed to have been intended for an inscription, as it had a carved border, but, if there, it was illegible. On the western side of it, and also to the south, were vaults arched in the same way as the church above, one part of which was enclosed by a cemented wall. This apparently was the baptistry attached to the sacred building, and was approached by a flight of steps on the west near the entrance to the church. Adjoining this was another building, in which were lying large columns and heaps of carved stones, that pointed to the obvious importance of this part of the town. A little further to the north, under an archway, was a stone with a Latin inscription of six lines, the only legible part being— IMP CAES MAUR ANTONINO AUG ARNIMPARIMID M M S No. 2057 (a), published by M. Waddington, is similar to this— IMPCAES MAUPANTONINO AUGARIMAPIMEICE BM. With the exception of the following, I found no inscription that is not in Waddington’s book. It was on a stone built in the front of a house. " KAO M AC 1 PX €TATOYAN AT 1 € CON X A AAN At the bottom of a wall almost covered by weeds was the following in Nabathean :— Of this I have an imperfect negative. The town was divided into two parts by a wide and open street very much wider than any I have ever seen either in the Hauran or any other part of Palestine. To the south-east was a large building c 2 | 2s 20 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. that no doubt formed the citadel. The only tower in the place has been described by Waddington. On its sides he found the names of the angels Michael, Gabriel, and Uriel, about which he says, “ Les archanges Michel et Gabriel sont assez souvent nommés dans les inscriptions chrétiennes; mais c’est la premiére fois, je crois, qu’on rencontre le nom d’Uriel sur un monument antique” (‘ Inscriptions Grecques et Latines de la Syrie,’ p. 487). But the most remarkable feature of this city is the number of crosses to be found on the door-posts and lintel-stones of the houses. There is no other town, ruined or otherwise, in any part of the country, that contains such a large number of these sacred emblems. This fact is very significant. Umm el Jemal has no remains that may be assigned to any period prior to the advent of Roman power; neither are there any signs of Moslem occupation. The only epoch of history represented in these ruins is that which flourished under the Roman and Byzantine emperors who posed as Christian rulers. One might, therefore, naturally suppose that it is solely a Christian city. Standing alone in the desert away from any other large city, it looks like a place of refuge. Yet from its position towards the south of the great plain of Bashan, it must have been the site of some older city. A few Nabathean inscriptions have been found there by M. Waddington and his companion Count de Voyiié, and one shows that the worship of Dusares, the Syrian Bacchus, was carried on, very likely before Chris- tianity was openly acknowledged. This must have been earlier than the fourth century, before the cross-carving era commenced. Up to the time of Constantine, the Christians were scarcely tolerated, and more often persecuted, though the Ebionites, and afterwards the Nestorians, resided in large numbers in this part of the country. But for safety’s sake they exhibited few of those signs of their religion, such as crosses, that would attract the attention of the Government. The Nabatheans were powerful both before and after Roman ascendency, and their worship of idols agreed with the ideas of the Italian Power. But when the Roman emperor adopted the religion of the Christians, the power of the pagan natives waned, and their worship gradually ceased. The Chris- tians were then able to practise their rites and ceremonies, not only openly, but with the ostentation of a new-born freedom. Consequently crosses and other religious emblems were carved, not merely on the different parts of churches, but even on lintel-stones over the doors of their houses. Inscriptions in very elementary Greek were extensively cut on stones and placed in all new buildings as votive offerings, or memorials of those that were loved and lost. The province of Bozra, which no doubt included Umm el Jemal, though by what name is not known, contained thirty-three bishoprics. This prosperous period of Christianity lasted only about 300 years, in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries. And when this city was deserted by its people at Site + ‘a <3 fi i ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 21 the Moslem conquest, they carried with them into obscurity its name, for the one it bears now is a modern appellation only. That this interesting city appears to have no connection with a period little more remote than the establishment of Roman influence is easily accounted for when one considers the natural laws and habits of men. This plain was in all probability covered with cities before the Israelites appeared in the country. It has been the scene of the strife of armies from the time of Thothmes III. (about 1600 B.c.) to the present day. And while cities built chiefly of combustible material were burnt to the ground and laid utterly waste, these stone-built towns that contained neither wood nor metal, but trusted in doors and windows of stone, may have been demolished, but the hard black basalt could never be consumed. Sites would be preserved as they are now, while the marks of a period were completely obliterated. I can illustrate this by what I afterwards saw at Suweide. Some years ago, less than thirty, it was a ruined city, noted alike for the beauty of its remains and their desolate appearance. At present there is not a single uninhabited house, and a Kaimakam resides there with a regiment of Turkish soldiers numbering never less than a thousand men. There are streets with shops, and the whole place is pervaded with an air of prosperity; even the ruined temple is turned into a dwelling-house. Masons were at work splitting the large stones into smaller ones. Unwieldy masses were being cut down into sizes more easily adapted for use; and I believe the picture I saw of the workmen utilizing the stones scattered about, irrespective of either shape or weight, for the erection and completion of houses, is one that will account for the absence of those marks of antiquity that one naturally expects to see on a site that justifies the identification attributed to it. I do not mean to infer from this that Umm el Jemal may be the Beth Gamul of the Bible—the former is in Bashan, and the latter was in Moab—but that it is an old site, older than the crosses on its stones, whose name is lost. Our Circassians for some time had been anxious to return; they had wished to do so in the night, but repented when they saw how readily I offered to release them from their bargain. They were, however, now beginning to show signs of fear both of Bedawin and the Druzes we were about to visit, saying there had been some collision between their people in the Jaulan and the Druzes; but when I again told them they might go if they were afraid, they reluctantly refused. We kept a sharp look-out for Bedawin as we moved eastward, in the direction of Salkad, riding the while close together after their manner in a strange and hostile country. In about an hour we saw signs of cultivation, and crossed ploughed fields, to the south of which were trees. And only a short distance to the north of us (as we afterwards learnt) a different scene was being enacted to our peaceful progress. 22 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. Fifteen Rawallah Bedawin, who were prospecting for a camping-place, with a further intention, no doubt, of removing anything to their camp that came in the way, approached too near the Druze town of Tur- BEEN. They were seen by the sheikh, and as their appearance could not be tolerated by the ostensible owners of the land, he rode out with three men to show that their presence was in no way desirable. In the fight that ensued one Druze was killed, and the horses of the others were captured, and they returned defeated and on foot. We heard both in Bosra and Kunnawat that fifty Druzes had brought back the horses, and that a blood-fend had commenced that would necessitate the loss of more lives. The first people we met were two riders rather remarkably attired, having only a pocket-handkerchief between them, and that was used by one of them as a covering for his head. It is only fair to add that they were boys, but of more than tender years. They belonged to THEBEEN, the town above mentioned, three hours from Umm-el-Jemal. We found the men assembled in groups, probably discussing their defeat and the loss of one of their men, or wondering when they would return and with what success. Our appearance was in no way opportune, judging by the cold reception accorded to us. As we had to make our peace with the people, who never asked us to alight, we were unable to examine the town. The sheikh was absent, they said, but one of the men offered to accompany us to Salkad. After a while he became talkative, and informed us that the place was inhabited solely by Druzes; that it was two and a half hours from Bosra, and three hours from Salkad. The latter we afterwards proved to be correct. It is not marked on any map whatever, and is some distance away from the road between Bosra and Salkad. It has never been mentioned except by Buckingham and Dr. Eli Smith, and they merely recorded the name as given to them in a list of the ruined cities on the plain. Two very large reservoirs, extensive ruins, and a population of some hundreds show that it is of some importance, and was still more so in olden times. 1 saw stones built in the sheikh’s new house bearing inscriptions, but I could not read them without appearing more in- quisitive than I deemed prudent under the circumstances. All the land by which it is surrounded is under cultivation, but covered with an enormous quantity of stones. We looked round for the ploughman dexterous enough to till that stony ground, but nowhere could one be seen. The castle of Salkad, long the most prominent object in an extensive range of vision, now appeared all the more imposing when contrasted with the vast number of high walls it overlooked. Before our arrival in the immediate neighbourhood of these structures we passed many groups of tents, belonging to a tribe that is known by the compre- hensive name of Jebelyah, who act as herdsmen for the Druzes. When q q : t i q } a ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN, 23 we entered the town, it was sometimes difficult to tell what was a wall pure and simple or part of a house. And only when standing on the roof of some habitation, or the castle-hill, is it possible to determine where the houses begin in the wall that surrounds the homestead ; even stone windows have in some cases been used to patch up a broken wall. We quartered ourselves on the sheikh, who has a fine medafeh (“ guest- room”) as the shelter of his roof offered most protection. After paying our respects to him, we had to answer the usual questions before we could rest in the contemplation of a supper equal in importance to the room and rank of its proprietor. He was a venerable old man with a stately presence, his long white beard and portly figure adding materially to the dignity of his bearing. But all who have heard the name of El Atrash, will recognize in this sheikh one of the most important chiefs of Jebel Druze. Indeed, we were informed on more than one occasion that Mohammed El Atrash was the greatest sheikh of all, and if we may judge by the deference paid to him, and his haughty bearing, there is more than a grain of truth in the statement. His hospitality is beyond reproach, for I was never served with a better dinner, and I have sat round many a trencher on the east of the Jordan. After the meal was over, and we were comfortably reclining on carpets spread on the mastabeh round the room, we were quickly surrounded by a crowd of eager questioners, many of whom have still the idea that the English are of the same family as themselves, and these welcomed us over and over again. My friend H——’s medical knowledge, accompanied by a stock of the most useful medicines, was of great service. A crowd of patients soon gathered round him, the sheikh’s case being taken first, as he had been suffering for fifteen days from a complaint that required but a simple remedy. One youngster wanted some freckles removed from his face, and the sheikh’s wife sent for some medicine to fasten her loose teeth. I never heard of diseases so manifuld and curious as we found there. Our doctor’s reputation increased, more especially when on the morrow the health of the sheikh had improved; but his good offices were recognized the same evening, and that night he slept under a coverlet of silk, while the rest of us had to be content with one of cotton. Our arms were given to us when all retired to rest for the night, and we slept in peace. In the morning we were early at work exploring the city, though H—-— was detained by patients until he handed over a quantity of English salts, quinine, and opium pills to the sheikh, with instructions for future use. The largest building in Salkad is the house of its sheikh, and it has only recently been rebuilt and enlarged to its present dimensions. ‘The only other structure that is larger than an ordinary dwelling is a ruined mosque with a small minaret, similar in style to the one at Amman and another in Ajlun, the only three their kind in the country. They are polygonal, and much more neatly 24 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. built than the common square ones of the Hauran, none of which are earlier than the twelfth century. The houses are spacious, but not to be compared with those at Umm el Jemal for either size or skilful construction, but the stone doors and windows are unequalled for beauty and symmetry of carving. All the walls of the yards and gardens are very high, and it was impossible to see more than stone walls or stone doors and windows without the permission of the householder, and this was by no means readily granted. There is only one wide street, and that is not more than six yards across, but it is set evenly with stones, and appears to be a part of the Roman road that is so plainly seen running to Bosra in one direction, and the desert in another; all the other streets are little better than narrow lanes. The only way to see the city, or town as it may now be called, is to ascend the castle hill and view it from the ruin on the summit. The path’above the houses is steep, and the old fortress is only reached with difficulty over the cinders that cover the track and crunch beneath the feet. The enormous mass that still overlooks the town is surrounded by a dry moat, which is the natural mouth of an extinct volcano. The castle was erected on the heap of basalt that fills the centre of this hollow in the conical hills. It is approached by a bridge that crosses this moat from the edge of the crater, which is covered with volcanic ashes that resemble the half-burnt coal of an English fire-grate. On one side, the outer wall that covered the rock had fallen down and left the natural rock foundation exposed to view. The stones that cover the face of the castle are not larger than those used in other buildings; in fact, the medafe of the sheikh is built of the stones that fell from the castle wall. But in the interminable mass of ruined vaults, galleries, and passages that fill the interior, there are many stones of great size, on some of which are carved eagles and other figures, and on the outer wall near the gate are two lions facing each other, and a palm tree. Many inscriptions are built in the wall, but too high to read or copy; others are on stones strewn over the central mass, many of which are Cufic. I photographed one built in the wall over a broken stone window, and, though it is not very perfect, it is of great interest, as it provides us with a clue to the builder of the present structure. I have shown it to my friend, the Rev. J. E. Hanauer, and after a careful examination he gave me the appended note. That there was a fortress on this hill before the Saracenic conquest can be easily proved by the massive stones in the foundations of the interior. We may naturally suppose, too, that a king who possessed cities fenced with high walls, gates, and bars (Deut. iii. 5) would not neglect to utilize for defensive purposes the conical hill that overlooked the most eastern city of his dominions (Deut. iii. 10), and commanded a view unequalled for extent in the whole of his kingdom. I took four different photographs from this ruin, showing the country } : q igh ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. 25 in all directions, and as I used the smallest stop, I was able to bring into the picture a distance of ten miles. They are not quite as good as I should have liked, but they give a fair idea of the town and contour of the country. The most striking of all is that representing the city lying along the western slope of the hill, about 300 feet below the castle. All the buildings seem alike, not one being larger than an ordinary dwelling-house, the most notable being the one, belonging to the sheikh, with the arches towards the left-hand corner. In this Salkad differs from the other ancient sites in the Hauran. There is not one building that seems to have stood in its entirety even for hundreds of years, except the castle. There is neither temple nor church, unless we include a small building with an apse now used as a house; even the small minaret before mentioned is lost in the numberless walls that represent the town. Yet we know that this is the site of a pre-Israel- itish city ; my remarks on Umm el Jemal will therefore apply here, with this difference, that the same name is still attached to it, and not lost like that of the other city. I am very much pleased to find that my photograph of this ancient city escaped the fate that overtook some others, as it shows how necessary that the reports of travellers should be supplemented in this way. One traveller who visited this city speaks of “ palaces” (‘ Giant Cities of Bashan,’ p. 76), and on p. 194 of Buckingham’s ‘Travels among the Arab Tribes,’ there is a picture of Salkad, in which a bridge of four arches crosses a river at the foot of the castle. The view of the surrounding country from the top of the castle wall is a very fine one, but the “towers of Beth Gamul” cannot be seen “ faintly on the horizon,” There is only one tower, and it is no higher than the houses that surround it. Bosra is not visible, and it is scarcely more than half the distance, but the Roman road leading to it can be seen as plainly as if it was an English turnpike. The same road runs to the south-east, and is only lost from view where two little peaks on the horizon shelter the last town marked on any map—Imtan, ten miles away (three hours). The Druzes say it continues still further, as they have ridden to Bedawin, ten hours beyond Imtan, to a city called El Azrak, where there are palm trees and running water; and the road does not stop even there, but may be followed for days into the desert. The population of Salkad is now over 1000, and is composed chiefly of Druzes, but there is a sprinkling of runaway Moslems and Christians who have been compelled to make it their city of refuge. No soldier or Government official has even been near this town, so they are perfectly safe as long as they give no cause of offence to their neighbours. In the stony wilderness of the surrounding country, there are fig-trees and vines ; apricots, peaches, water-melons, and potatoes are grown, besides abundance of tobacco and plenty of corn. M. Waddington has published twenty-five inscriptions found here, x 26 ACROSS SOUTHERN BASHAN. but the name of the city is not mentioned in one of them. It is, how- ever, found in a Nabathean inscription discovered by De Vogiié (‘ Inscript. Nabat.,’ No. 6). Besides some which I afterwards found in Waddington, I copied the following inscriptions, hitherto unpublished :— OYOIKO JMNIIME SPIANC VA On the floor of the sheikh’s house. CENAPXCIAG +AYTII On the floor of the sheikh’s house. OYKATTIOYTOUN OPAINAPIWNO TT € EZANAPOYAUBPIA ZHNWNOENEPI Y ENETICHUNPY On the floor of the sheikh’s house, TAONOWYATATWN -KAIOAMUMOCKM Slightly broken at the end. One line missing. yf CTON A broken stone, large letters, near sheikh’s house. CIA HPOrA TOWGIN BPIWTHNPOTOI QCTHE TTA Ina courtyard. CAI TTAXPHW A GHAONEINAIL. y / 7 7¥ On the floor of the “ guest room.” Jerusalem, October 23, 1893. Dear Mr. LEEs, Thank you for the photograph, enlarged from a smaller one, of the inscription over a gateway of the castle at Salkhad. The photographic reproduction of this inscription is most opportune and important, because it proves that the copy made by Burckhardt, and published on p. 183 of his ‘Travels’ (German version, Weimar, 1823) is incorrect, and also because it — — { = nt l AYC | { NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 27 confirms the correction, as far as it goes, suggested by Dr. Van Berchem, of Geneva, in his footnote 3 on p. 90, heft 1 and 2, vol. xvi. of the Zeitschrift of the German Palestine Exploration Society. The inscription, therefore, as far as it can be made out, reads— + * * * “In the Name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate. The building of this tower was ordered by the Emir.” The name cannot be made out from the photograph, but Van Berchem suggests that it is that of the well-known historical personage and great builder, Sul col Dad “ Tzz-ud-din Aibek,” who was lord of Al Salkhad about the time indicated in the inscription, viz. “In the days of Malik- ul-adil Saif-ud-din” (not “ Saad-ud-din,” as Burckhardt has in his copy) “ Abi Bekr bin Ayoub.” The year cannot be made out from the photograph; but we know that Saif-ud-din, the nephew of the famous Salah-ud-din (Saladin), had made his son, Al malik ul Mu‘azzam, his heir-tenant at Damascus, and that the latter appointed Aibek, his mamlook, to the lordship of Salkhad, or Sarchad, as Arab writers sometimes call it, in a.p. 608. We may therefore safely assign the inscription to the end of the sixth or the commencement of the seventh Moslem century. I remain, dear sir, ; Yours faithfully, J. E. HANAvER. NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. By W. ALFRED ECKERSLEY. In April, 1893, the writer was entrusted with the task of surveying and reporting upon a proposed line of railway from the Anglo-Portuguese frontier in South East Africa to Salisbury, Mashonaland. The survey party reached Beira in June, and at once proceeded up the river Pungwe, on their way to Chimoio. From Beira, by river, to Fontesvilla, the starting-point of the Beira railway, is a journey of 45 miles; it occupies, in the largest of the three or four river-steamers, and under favourable circumstances, about six hours. According to a survey completed in November last, the distance from Beira to Fontesvilla, by the course of the proposed railway extension, is 37 miles 1 furlong. , On the way up the river seven hippopotami were seen; they are said to be plentiful in the tidal reaches of the Pungwe. 28 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. Fontesvilla is situated on the south-west side of the river. Opposite the settlement the river-banks stand from 5 to 6 feet above high-water level of spring tides. The ordinary rise and fall of tides is 6 feet. During heavy floods the river overflows its banks, covering the flats on which the town is built with from 1 to 3 feet of water; the river Muda, flowing at the back of Fontesvilla 8 miles or so to the westward to join the Bisimiti and Pungwe, brings down a large proportion of the flood water. At Fontesvilla the Pungwe is 430 feet wide; its banks of stiff clay and mud rise perpendicularly above the river, and are very subject to erosion by the quickened flow of the flood waters. The river usually FONTESVILLA, PUNGWE RIVER. runs sluggishly, carrying with it large quantities of sand and mud in suspension. Numerous shoals and a constantly shifting channel render navigation extremely difficult even fur the light-draught steamers in use. The neighbourhood of Fontesvilla is very unhealthy ; the depressing climate, together with the constant malaria rising from swamps and river, were the cause of a disastrous mortality amongst the staff of engineers and others employed upon the construction of the Beira railway. In June the nights are distinctly cold, while the heat of the sun during the day is very powerful; the wide range of temperature during the twenty-four hours undoubtedly is an additional cause of fever and sickness. The Beira railway was completed last November (1893) to‘a point, 4 : : | NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 29 measured along the centre line of the railway, 75 miles from Fontes- villa in a north-westerly direction. The temporary terminus of the railway, usually known as the “ Seventy-five mile peg,” is 434 miles from Chimoio by the line recently surveyed for the proposed extension to that point; the distance measured in a straight line is very considerably shorter. The Seventy- five mile terminus is connected with Chimoio by a waggon road lately cut through the forest, thus bringing the railway into direct communi- cation with the “Selous” road to Massi-Kessi, Umtali, and Salisbury. The terminus is unfortunately situated well within the limits of the district infested by the “ tetse-fly,” thus rendering imperative the early extension of the line to Chimoio, or even further to the west. Chimoio, up to the present, has been entirely free from the fly. The doubt has been expressed that the presence of a large number of horses, oxen, and other animals at Chimoio, attracted thither by the facilities of transport offered by the railway, might in its turn be the means of attracting the destructive fly to that place. This doubt has now become a certainty, recent letters containing the news that the dreaded fly had actually made its appearance in Chimoio. It is interesting to note that two ponies, purchased in Natal for the use of the survey party, passed through Beira, Fontesvilla, and the intervening “ fly-belt,” to Chimoio without suffering any ill effects ; they ‘served the party until the conclusion of the work, and were finally sold at a profit. No particular precautions against the “fly” were adopted, except occasional brushing with green boughs. It is quite certain that the tetse-flies settled on the horses in considerable numbers, and remained quite long enough to allow of their biting. It was only during one day, however, that the flies were present in large numbers ; this was on the course of the railway, between 38 and 45 miles from Fontesvilla. For the first 20 miles the line of railway traverses a perfectly flat, nearly treeless, alluvial plain, covered with long grass and teeming with big game, including lions, buffaloes, most of the South African species of antelope, wart hogs, and wild boars. At a distance of 25 miles from Fontesvilla the foothills are reached. Here the surface of the country becomes slightly broken, and is covered with forest. The ‘Chiruvu Hill Station is situated at mile 35, at an elevation of 637 feet above the sea. The station consists of half a dozen huts, built by the contractor for the accommodation of his staff, and lies at the foot -of two conical kopjes, covered from base to summit with a dense growth of low trees and long grass. From Chiruvu hills to the terminus of the railway at mile 75, the country traversed is of a very uniform character and appearance ; rising gradually to the westward, the ground is broken by deep valleys, formed by numerous streams tributary to ‘the Muda and Mudichiri rivers, and is thickly wooded with the acacia 30 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. tree, locally known as “ mopane,” which, however, attains to no great height. The forest is interspersed with open spaces and park-like stretches of country; there is little undergrowth except the long reedy grass, and bamboos and small palms are scattered but sparsely through the district. Between mile 75 and Chimoio the country is similar to that previously described, but is more broken; streams, flowing with an abundance of clear cool water throughout the dry season, have formed deep narrow valleys, from which the hills rise steeply on either side. Before the construction of the Beira railway, the route usually taken from Fontesvilla to Chimoio led by the river Pungwe as far as Mapandas, and thence by native trails through Sarmento and Mandigos. As soon as the railway works were commenced, the old route was abandoned. Landing at Fontesvilla, travellers follow the line for 63% miles, and from this point take a native trail to the north-west, vid Mandigos, or another slightly more to the southwards, passing through a number of scattered kraals. The southern path is still preferred by native porters, as it affords better opportunities for obtaining food and accommodation on their march. It has become the habit of the natives of the interior engaged in porterage to and from the coast, to hide or bury their supplies of meal on this route on their way down, and pick them up for use on their homeward journey. This route was chosen by the writer. Leaving the railway at “‘Charlton’s Camp,” which is 63} miles from Fontesvilla, and stands 1200 feet above the sea, the head waters of the Mudichiri river were soon reached ; at the point of crossing, the stream was 15 feet wide, and flowed in a series of falls and pools over a rocky bed. Three or four miles further to the north-west lies a small kraal of a dozen or more huts, known as “ Umbobos.” Twelve to fifteen miles in the same direction was another kraal, sur- rounded by extensive patches of cultivated land. As far as could be ascer- tained, this village is known as Mashangombes. A march of 18 to 20 miles in the same general direction brought the party to Chimoio. The whole distance by this route, from Fontesvilla to Chimoio, is estimated as slightly over 100 miles; the distance by the line of the Beira Railway survey is 1184 miles. The route described is unsuitable for travelling on horseback, on account of the frequency of bogs and the narrow pre- cipitous paths leading to and from the stream-crossings. It was found necessary to bridge some of the stream-crossings, where boggy, with a mattrass of trees and boughs covered with smaller branches and long grass. One of the horses caused a tiresome delay by getting hopelessly bogged. It was finally extricated, after considerable hard work, by one gang of native porters hauling upon it by ropes from the bank, whilst another gang, up to their armpits in water, levered the helpless animal NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 81 forward little by little with stout branches, having first tethered its legs to prevent it kicking. The trails are narrow, and run, for the most part, through the long grass. Walking in the earlier part of the day is disagreeable, on account of the drenching dew, and later on account of the heat, as scarcely a breath of air can penetrate the dense walls of grass, which in the coast districts reaches an average height of 8 to 10 feet. In walking, the natives place one foot precisely in front of the other, and leave a slippery track of trodden grass only nine inches or so in width to walk upon. The streams are clear, and run with a rapid current over rocky beds, except where bogs are formed by an accumu- lation of soil and rank vegetation. At Chimoio the party met the native chief of that name, and made him some small presents. He is a rather disreputable-looking old man, with a sharp cunning look, and suffers from lameness in one leg, which is badly crippled by accident or disease. Chimoio has cultivated a taste for strong drinks, and his desire to gratify it often brings him to the European quarter of the village. This quarter now consists of three or four general stores, built in the native manner, round which a number of waggons engaged in transport service are usually outspanned. The writer’s survey was commenced at Chimoio, the line and levels being connected with points left by the Beira railway engineers. The total distance of 4124 miles from Beira to Salisbury by the line of the proposed railway may be divided as follows :— Beira to Fontesvilla (by land) 374 miles. Terminus to Chimoio — Chimoio to the assumed Anglo-Portuguese frontier at the second ford of the Meneni river ” 4123 By the waggon road this distance is reduced to 381 miles. The elevations above sea-level of the most important points on the survey are as follows :— Masheke river 4785 ,, Highest point on line between the Umscetkwe ond ‘Ranwe rivers ees wae 5620 ,, The accompanying illustration (p, 32) shows a longitudinal section of the country traversed by the survey. 32 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. Between Chimoio and Umtali the waggon road follows a winding course, in order that, by keeping as much as possible upon the high ground of the watersheds, the frequent crossing of streams and swamps may be avoided. The survey followed the same general direction as the road, crossing it more than once. For three-quarters of the distance to Umtali, the country is covered with thick woods of acacia or “mopane” trees. In certain localities, especially between the rivers Vundusi and Lonodsi, these trees grow to a considerable size, the largest attaining a height of 70 to 80 feet, and a diameter, measured 4 feet above the ground, of from 2 to 3 feet; by far the greater number, however, are small trees, varying in height from 15 to 30 feet, and in diameter from 6 to 9 inches. Large open spaces, usually on either side of the stream, are met with in the forest. There is very little jungle except long grass. In the deep “ donga” bottoms, a matted mass of reeds and bramble, very difficult to force a way through, is often found. The surface of the country is gently undulating, LONGITUDINAL SECTION ALONG MR, ECKERSLEY’S ROUTE FROM CHIMOIO TO SALISBURY. Horizontal Scale Linch = 300000f* Vertical Scale linch=6000f* except where it falls sharply to the larger streams. The rivers crossed in this district are Vundusi, Lonodsi, and Lusika, streams 20 to 25 feet wide, and 2 to 3 feet deep at the beginning of the rainy season. They are all subject to sudden rises. The soil is either of a red or grey colour. The former indicates that it is composed of the detritus of slates and other metamorphic rocks ; the latter points to a granitic origin. It overlies the granite or green- stone rock, with a depth varying from 3 to 30 feet. On the watersheds and in the river-channels rock crops out plentifully. The line of survey crossed the Revue river a short distance below the road ford. The river has here a rapid current and a gravel and sandy bed, with water from 2 to 3 feet deep, spread over a width of about 60 feet. Above the ford the bottom is rocky, and rapids alternate with deep pools, in which a number of crocodiles make their home. One was shot by a member of the party. In spite of the presence of these reptiles, the “ Shangan” boys employed upon the survey bathed fearlessly, taking evident delight in swimming and diving in the deep water. Between the Revue and the town of Umtali, the vegetation is very similar to that already described, except that the open spaces are 09250 200 700 50 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 33 larger and the woods less thick. The trees also present a greater variety Palms and bamboos are very plentiful, but the acacia is still by tar the commonest tree. The “ makoona,” a hard-wood tree with a leaf resembling the bay ; the red pear ; the wild fig, bearing a good fruit ; the chestnut; the “mahobohobo” or wild loquat, also fruit-bearing, are all found in the valleys and on the lower slopes of the mountains, growing singly or in small clumps. Both the black and white thorn grow in this district, their presence being a nearly certain indication of wet or swampy ground. Of all the varieties of native timber, only one, known as “ redwood,” has been found capable of resisting the ravages’ of the white ants and borers, when used for purposes of construction. It is, unfortunately, a tree of small dimensions, hard to work, and only found in very limited quantities. Following the Revue as far as its junction with the Meneni, and then the valley of the latter stream, the ground rises with an even ascent, until within ten miles of Christmas Pass. Here the Meneni becomes a mountain torrent, and the waggon road rises sharply alongside it to gain the first step in the ascent. For two miles the road runs along the low watershed of the Sikura river, flowing in a south-westerly direction to the Odzi, while the Meneni flows eastwards. It then follows a steep and winding course until the summit of Christmas Pass is reached. Between the Revue ford and the town of Umtali the road does not cross any important rivers. Numerous short streams, flowing down the mountain flanks, have scored deep ravines in the alluvial soil of the valley, and form a series of awkward crossings on the waggon road. The Meneni is twice crossed, the fords being only two miles apart. At these crossings the water is from 12 to 15 feet wide in the dry season; but the great depth and width of the river-channel shows that in the rainy season it carries a considerable volume of water. At the second ford the Mozambique Company have established a station, which is intended to form the nucleus of a frontier town. The station is in charge of two officers of the Portuguese army charged with general administrative functions, and a custon-house officer to check the passage of goods across the frontier. The soil of the valleys of the Revue, and its tributary streams, the Meneni and Zambusi, consists of a dark red alluvial loam mixed with a large quantity of vegetable matter. It produces maize, rice, millet, manioc, tobacco, cotton, bananas, vines, lemons, ground or monkey nuts, indiarubber, and gums. The five first-mentioned crops are by far the most plentiful, the others growing for the most part wild and in inconsiderable quantities. The advantages, for the production of tropical crops, offered by this district, comprise an agreeable climate at an elevaticn of 2000 feet above the sea,a deep and excellent soil, and an abundance of water, all the No. I—Jaxvary, 1895.] D je = i 3 34 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. valleys being watered by streams capable of yielding a plentiful and continuous irrigation supply. Between Chimoio and the foot of the Christmas Pass range, the commonest rocks are gneiss and granite, the gneiss being particularly prevalent in the neighbourhood of Chimoio. The character of the forma- tion changes near the mountains, which are composed of metamorphic rocks superimposed on a granite base. After reaching an altitude of 4450 at Christmas Pass, the road falls rapidly to Umtali, situated at a distance of six miles from the summit, and at an elevation of 3750 feet above the sea. A fine view is obtained from Christmas Pass. The mountain range extends to the east and west; out from it rise peaks of naked granite and greenstone, their bases and sheltered clefts covered with acacias and other trees. Looking back, one can trace the steps by which the road has reached the summit, flanked by thickly wooded hills which trend to the eastward to culminate in the conspicuous Vumba mountain ; looking forward, the eye follows a low spur running at right angles to the main range, until it rests upon the houses of Umtali, built on a gentle slope falling to the river Inyamgambo. A wooded kopje, 1000 feet high, rises abruptly at the back of the town. The “high veldt,” or upper plateau, of Mashonaland differs from the lower country in being more open and free from trees. The whole plateau is covered with long grass growing to a height varying from 4 to 8 feet ; woods resembling large plantations are scattered with great fre- quency over it. The surface of the plateau is formed into a series of well- marked depressions by the rivers flowing to the south to join the Sabi. The principal rivers crossed by the road are the Odzi, Inyamajuru, Inya- zuri, Rusapi or. Lusapi, Mezi, Masheke or Umsheke, Munimbi, Ruzawe, Umsitkwe, and Ruwa. By far the most important of these are the Odzi and Masheke, most of the others being tributaries of these two larger streams. These rivers were only seen by the survey party in the dry season, but flood-marks and other indications determined the area of waterway necessary. For the smaller crossings spans of from 25 to 50 feet were decided upon, while for the larger 75 to 120 feet openings would be necessary. Where the rock is not actually exposed in the river bottoms it closely underlies the soil, so that excellent bridge foundations may be relied upon. The Odzani, or little Odzi, is a stream with a rapid fall, and brings down a fine body of water to the Odzi; at the ford on the road between Umtali and Umtasa’s kraal, it is 40 feet in width and from 2 to 3 feet in depth. The current flows so swiftly as to make it difficult for a horse to maintain its footing on the slippery rock bottom. During the rains the Odzani frequently becomes unfordable. All the rivers crossed on the high veldt have a quick fall. They A ay NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 35 form a series of rapids and pools alternating with reaches of sluggish water, where the channel is dammed by soil and masses of vegetation ; in the latter cases the banks are usually precipitous, and the fords boggy and treacherous. Very little sand or gravel is found in the river-beds. The water is usually cool and good to drink, except where it has been lying a long time stagnant. Crocodiles, of a fair size, inhabit the pools, but very few fish, except the smallest fry, were noticed. Swamps are formed in the valley-bottoms, on the slopes flanking the streams, and around the springs that feed them, wherever the subsoil drainage is checked by an impermeable floor beneath of rock or clay, RIVER ODZI, AT JUNCTION WITH THE RIVER ODZANI. and by intrusive walls or dykes of rock. The drainage of the swamps would not, as a rule, be a matter of much difficulty, as their depth is usually not excessive. The exhalations rising from them are certainly a fruitful cause of the prevalence of malarial fevers. The soil of the plateau between Umtali and Salisbury consists, for the most part, of decomposed granite, and is, in consequence, of a rather poor and sandy nature; its average depth is from 3 to 5 feet. Large areas of red soil are, however, frequently met with, and are much more highly esteemed for agricultural purposes. The Mashonas on the plateau grow maize, millet, rice, beans, ground nuts, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, tomatoes, and a little cotton; tobacco is also grown in the . red soil. The long grass which covers the whole of the plateau is burned down in the early autumn. Almost immediately after, and without the help of rain, a tender young grass springs up amongst the blackened D2 | J 1 36 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. tufts, forming good and welcome pasturage for cattle. A few wild flowers also help to carpet the charred surface of the veldt. Here, also, the “‘ mopane ” tree is commonest, but rarely attains to a height of more than 25 feet. When first its leaves make their appearance they are bright red; this soon changes to a rich autumnal brown; passing through some further shades of that colour, they finally assume a green of equal brilliance to the spring leaves of most of our English trees. Masses of these trees in the various stages of change form a remarkably picturesque effect; the strong contrast in which the brilliant reds and greens stand out against the background of the blue-grey granite is par- ticularly striking. The wild loquat, wild fig, kaffir orange, sugar bush, and kaffir-baum grow plentifully on the high veldt. From the gnarled branches of the latter tree the natives manufacture their bowls and platters, and the large wooden mortars for pounding the maize and millet into meal. The kaffir-baum has a bright red flower, but very little foliage. During the dry season distances in this part of the country are remarkably deceptive, objects appearing to be much further off than they really are. This particularly striking fact is, in all probability, due to an opaqueness in the atmosphere, caused by the smoke of the constantly occurring grass fires. After a sharp rain, the dim purple haze gives way to a bright clear sky. The climate of the plateau in the dry season is good and bracing ; the early morning air is particularly exhilarating. The range of tem- perature during the day is often extreme; the thermometer frequently marked 3° to 4° of frost in the early morning, and the water in the basins was frozen hard; while later in the same day the mercury indicated as much as 80° Fahr. in the shade. The mean temperature noted in July and August was 65° Fahr. The midday heat is nearly always tempered by a cool easterly breeze. The rainfall noted in Salis- bury for 1891-92 by Major Forbes amounted to 33°84 inches, and rain fell on seventy-five days ; the extremes of temperature observed by him were 93° Fahr. in October, 1891, and 34° Fahr. in June, 1892. The geological formation of the country along the route surveyed is very uniform, the rock being almost entirely granite, with occasional dykes of greenstone. The granite kopjes scattered over the whole of the plateau range in height from 50 to 1000 feet. In many districts, owing, doubtless, to seismic disturbances and the action of the weather, the rocks assume the most varied and fantastic shapes, and lend to the landscape of Mashonaland a weirdness quite its own. Thirty miles from Umtali, the waggon road crosses a considerable range of hills, in which greenstone of a porphyritic nature occurs in abundance. Four miles east of Salisbury the character of the formation changes, the granite being here overlaid with ironstone shale, The Salisbury kopje, which rises to a height of 170 feet above the main street, is composed of i 2 i NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 37 magnetic ironstone shale, highly indurated and laminated, and showing evident signs of intense folding and crushing. No limestone has been found between Umtali and Salisbury, or indeed anywhere in this part of Mashonaland. The gold-bearing reefs of the Umtali district occur in a belt of metamorphic rocks, extending east and west from Umtali for a distance of over 40 miles; this belt varies in width from a mile and a half at the Odzi, to 8 or 10 miles at the Crow’s Nest, a point on the Penalonga ridge, halfway between Umtali and Massi-Kessi. The course of the railway again enters a gold-bearing zone in the neighbour- hood of Salisbury. The members of the survey-party lacked both the leisure and the MOUNT MONTIKWIRI. experience necessary for big-game shooting; their exploration of the country, nevertheless, often led them far away from beaten tracts, and afforded more chances of seeing game than fall to the lot of an ordinary traveller. Nearly every day one or two antelope were put up, and not rarely they were seen in herds of from twenty to thirty. The best game country traversed lay between the Odzi and Inyazuri rivers, 6 or 7 miles south of the waggon road; this district was entirely unin- habited. Near the river Mezi large numbers of baboons, of all sizes and ages, were met with sporting amongst the rocks, trees, and boulders of the kopjes ; they evinced very little surprise or fear at the near approach of man. Partridges, doves in very large numbers round the patches of | | | 38 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. cultivated land, duck and wild geese on the Odzi and Masheke rivers, were the feathered game most frequently noticed. Occasionally huge birds, locally known as “ pows,” were seen on the distant veldt; these birds are not infrequently mistaken for ostriches by the inexperienced. The natives display considerable ingenuity in the construction of game traps. For small game they employ a sprung branch attached by a string of bark fibre to a noose hidden just beneath the surface of the ground, or carefully constructed alley-ways, close-fenced on both sides with upright sticks, leading through «a gap to a trap formed by a heavy limb ready balanced to fall upon the quarry as it passes. Considerable time and trouble are taken in the preparation of the big-game traps. The site chosen generally lies at the top of a valley between two kopjes. A fence is constructed across the valley, and so far up the precipitous sides of the kopjes as to prevent the escape of the driven game at either end. In one instance the fence was three-quarters of a mile or more in length; it was strongly constructed of posts let into the ground at intervals of 8 to 10 feet, forked at the upper end for the reception of a stout rail. ‘The spaces between the posts are filled in with heavy brushwood placed vertically, and laced together longitudinally, the whole forming a most formidable barrier 5 feet 6 inches in height. At intervals, varying from 20 to 100 feet, the continuity of the fence was broken by gaps, left to tempt the hard- pressed game to pass through them. In these gaps pits were dug; they measured 10 feet in length, 2 feet wide on the top, with shelving sides, narrowing in to 9 inches or so wide at the bottom, and from 6 to 9 feet deep. The pits were covered with boughs laid lightly across them, and their treacherous nature was finally concealed by a covering of grass. A very necessary warning to give to inexperienced travellers in Mashonaland, is to beware of any gap in a fence, as these dangerous traps are scattered far and wide over the surface of the country. The insect pests common to the tropics, such as jiggers, ticks, sand- flies, and mosquitoes, give very little trouble in Mashonaland, or on the journey to and from the coast. White ants and borers are the worst enemies of the settlers in the high country, while the tetse-fly causes incalculable mischief in the low-lying districts. Although the party was scattered and travelled over much un- trodden ground, the number of snakes encountered was very small. Two puff-adders were seen, one of which was killed. These two, and three or four smaller snakes of a species not recognized, were the only ones observed during the five months spent in Mashonaland. The country on the line of survey is thinly populated; many days were passed without meeting a single soul. The sparseness of population was especially noticeable between Umtali and the river Inyazuri. Out- side the large kraals, such as Umtasa’s and Makoni’s, the chief centres of native population on the route travelled are on the banks of the | = NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 39 Rusapi river south of the road, on the Ruzawe river south of the road, and in the valley of the Makabusi near Salisbury. The outlying kraals, as a rule, consist of a dozen or more huts; the number of granaries, resembling small huts, gives an air of greater importance than they really possess to many of the villages. Large patches of cultivated land now abandoned, stone foundations of deserted villages, extensive forest clearings met with all over the country, prove that at no distant date Mashonaland was much more thickly populated than at the present day, although no doubt these features may be partly accounted for by the nomadic character of the people. MASHONA KRAAL ON RIVER MEZI, Labour is now scarce on the high veldt. The “boys” obtained from the neighbouring kraals are largely supplemented by men from Gorongoza’s country near the Zambesi, and from the “ Shangan” country near the coast. The latter “boys” are the most highly prized for the work in the mining districts, as they are more intelligent and enterprising than the timid Mashonas. Apart from agriculture and cattle-breeding on a scale large enough to supply their own scanty wants, the industries practised by the Mashonas are of little importance. Grain is stored by the natives in circular granaries, which are miniature copies of their own huts. Near the source of the Inyazuri river the party unexpectedly came across a collection of fifty or sixty granaries, belonging to a neighbouring village, and in charge of two watchmen. The clean surface of the granite rock | 40 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. formed the floor of the granaries ; they were perched on boulders, with- out regard to order, where a flat surface offered a favourable foundation. Their circular walls consisted of wattle and daub; three or four stout poles with forked ends protruded above the rest of the wall to receive the ribs of the umbrella-shaped roof, this roof being first covered with a plastering of mud, and then thatched with long grass. Some of the granaries measured 6 feet in height to the eaves, and 6 feet in diameter, but they varied in size to suit the area of level rock available on the several boulders. The interior is partitioned, by walls of wattle and daub, into three or sometimes four compartments, to separate the bulk of the grain. The building is covered with an inner roof of sticks plastered with mud before the outer roof is‘put on. A small door or manhole made from an oval or round slab of rock, and with a handle fitted to it, is let into the wall of the hut about 4 feet above the ground. ‘The outside ornamentation of nearly all the huts consists of mouldings representing the female breast—an emblem of plenty— and a longitudinal bar in relief above them, the significance of which is open to conjecture. In the aggregate these granaries were capable of storing upwards of six thousand bushels of grain. The trades followed by the Mashonas of the present day include basket-making of a particularly strong and superior quality ; the weav- ing of bark and cotton fibre into blankets and sacks for carrying grain; the making of bark rope and string; the manufacture of rude wooden utensils and earthenware pots for household use; and the softening and preparation of skins for wear. Each community appears to be self- supporting and to manufacture its own utensils and grow its own supplies; for this reason there is very little interchange of produce between villages, except, indeed, in the case of tobacco, which is ex- changed for meal and other necessaries. The manufacture of iron articles, such as knives, hoes, assegais, and axes, is at the present time confined to the neighbourhood of Mount Wedza, some distance to the south of the Salisbury road, where there are extensive deposits of iron ore. The Mashonas and others travel long distances to the district to make new purchases, or to have repairs done to their toolsand weapons. A line of rough shelters situated a few miles apart was pointed out, on one of the trails running to Mount Wedza from the north, as having been established by the natives travelling to and from the iron district with their tools and weapons. From Marandella, a petty chief living in the neighbourhood of the Salisbury road, two assegais were purchased. Their interest lies in the fact that their shafts and points are manufactured entirely out of Mount Wedzairon. They are ornamented by narrow strips of iron, three- quarters of an inch in width and one quarter of an inch thick, wound round the iron shaft near the ends, with the object of giving both grip and balance to the weapons; these strips prove the extreme ductility : 4 : NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 41 of the metal. Mashona smiths have not learned the secret of tempering their metal without rendering it brittle. When the natives, on rare occasions, use their assegais for any serious purpose, it is stated that the weapons either break or bend. The small axes are soft and badly tempered, but, despite this fact, the Mashonas display great skill, quick- ness, and precision in cutting down trees and lopping branches with them. Ina very few days they utterly spoilt the American axes, of superior temper, with which they were at first supplied. The accompanying sketch shows a blast furnace found during the survey on the banks of the Rusapi river, 10 miles south of the waggon road. There was no trace of modern habitation within 2 or 3 miles of where it was discovered, nor were there indications of the existence of any large quantity of iron ore in its neighbourhood, the nearest deposit, as far as could be ascertained, being in the Mount Wedza district, 40 to 50 miles distant. This fact favours the theory that the ore employed for smelting was a weathered magnetite, which occurs in the neighbourhood in small brown lumps of tolerably uniform size. A lump picked up in this vicinity, on being held over the compass of a theodolite, was found to deflect the needle through 12 degrees. The magnetite, FRONT ELEVATION. SECTION A.B. NATIVE BLAST FURNACE, when its size required it, was probably broken up into pieces the size of walnuts and placed in the furnace mixed with charcoal, with a layer of dry wood at the bottom of all to start the fire. It is not probable that any special flux was used in smelting, as no limestone is to be found anywhere in this part of the plateau, but the ash of the charcoal might possibly act as a flux. The fact that charcoal was employed as fuel is proved beyond doubt by a lump of slag picked up close at hand, in which pieces of charcoal are embedded. It is interesting to note that Mungo Park, in his book of travels, describes a process of iron-smelting very similar to the one reviewed here. The accompanying sketch clearly shows the construction of the furnace; it is made of blue clay burnt hard, or, more probably, from the earth of the white-ant hills which abound in the neighbourhood. Furnace || / / \\ BAA, Floor Ns \ Leve! 42 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. The blast was conducted through two clay pipes about three-quarters of an inch bore, numerous pieces of which were found lying round the furnace; the bellows used were, in all probability, two goat or buck skins alter- nately filled with and emptied of air by manual pressure. This method still obtains in the native forges in Mashonaland. As soon as the furnace was charged, the arched opening shown in the sketch was banked up by a door of clay, which was broken down when the smelting operations were finished. The whole process as practised in Mashona- land is very similar to that employed in India and Borneo, as described in Phillips’s ‘ Metallurgy.’ An interesting pamphlet by Mr. Thomas Turner, reprinted from the Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, on the “ Production of Wrought Iron in Small Blast Furnaces in India,” has helped the writer in his short examination of this question. As in the NATIVE BLAST FURNAOE, case of the granaries already described, the ornamentation of the furnace consists of female breasts and a bar in relief; in the present instance the bar is in a vertical instead of horizontal position. The date of the furnace in question is a matter of conjecture; the weathering of the clay points to an age of from 15 to 20 years, but the absence of any sign of habitation near at hand possibly indicates an older origin. The Mashonas with whom the party came in contact were of a timid, indeed cowardly, disposition. They were scrupulously honest in their dealings—very possibly from no higher motive than fear of punishment ; be this as it may, no single case of pilfering from the tents, which were constantly left open and unguarded, occurred during the period spent amongst them. They are, under nearly all circumstances, contented and extremely lively. After twelve hours’ work on the survey, they have frequently enlivened the long march home to camp with songs and dances. A cold wind upset their equanimity more than any other discomfort, and when working under such conditions they would seek shelter at every opportunity, and, carrying a lighted brand with them from point to point, would kindle a small fire of dry grass and sticks, around which they would crouch shivering, until ordered to move on. | i) 4 WN PLAN. NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 43 Like most negroes, the Mashonas are particularly fond of clothing themselves in the cast-off garments of the white men. This habit is deplorable, not only because it transforms a fine savage into a ridiculous scarecrow, but also because the clothes are rarely if ever washed or changed, but are worn constantly through heat, cold, and rain, until their accumulated dirt and unaccustomed warmth have laid the seeds of various skin and lung diseases. The men are of medium height, their slight build making them appear taller; the average height of those who worked on the survey was 5 feet 4 inches. They are fairly well made, but their arms and chests are not as a rule strongly developed. Their skin has a fine healthy glow, its colour being dark chocolate brown, some shades removed from black. Native dress consists of softened skins from which the hair has been removed, tucked in, both in front and behind, to a leathern or bark belt. Skins are now rapidly giving way to the cheaper and more easily pro- oured “ limbo,” or coarse calico. The oil of the monkey nut is used in preparing the skins for wear; it is also employed for cooking and light- ing purposes. The women are considerably smaller than the men; they are clumsily built, have coarse, plain features, and from no point of view are they attractive. Great pride is taken, by the men especially, in the arrangement and adornment of the hair. It is oiled as often as possible; from time to time it is recut and fashioned into queer shapes, usually into upstanding wisps festooned and ornamented with beads, bright bits of tin, and feathers. Many of the women have their heads completely shaved, this fashion, as may well be imagined, adding no charm to their appearance. The inhabitants of the “ high veldt” usually carry a small axe or an assegai, sometimes both ; a knife of native manufacture in a carved wooden sheath, prettily ornamented by fine brass wire woven into patterns, and a snuffbox of similar make, are almost invariably worn slung round the neck by a piece of bark string or leather. In some instances the snuffbox, made of bamboo neatly carved, or consisting of a cartridge shell, is carried in a slit in the lobe of the ear. Near the coast it was noticed that the men carried bows and arrows. Many ofthe younger men wear round their necks a flat white shell hung by a leathern string ; they are averse to parting with these ornaments, which, it is stated, are love-tokens. The Mashonas display little strength in pulling or lifting with their arms, but are able to carry heavy loads when once lifted to their shoulders. They ease the burden they are carrying by resting it on a stout stick held in one hand in front and projecting over their shoulders behind, and can carry a load of from 50 to 75 lbs. all day, walking, under this weight, from 18 to 20 miles. Before breaking up camp some sports were organized, money prizes 44 NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. being given to induce the natives to compete. They did not display any great activity, being easily beaten by the white men of the party at jumping, vaulting, and running. They are good dancers, and take great pleasure in displaying their accomplishments to the accompaniment of hand-clapping, tom-tom playing, and savage chants, with a constantly recurring refrain. Their dances are of a warlike character, descriptive of daring feats of arms. When one is aware that their nature is in reality extremely timid and cowardly, it is amusing to note the bloodthirsty and warlike airs and attitudes assumed by them while dancing. The survival of these dances points to an ancestry versed in warlike pursuits before their subjection by the Matabili, though they may, indeed, have been learnt from the Matabili themselves. The inhabitants of the plateau are always willing to trade with the white colonists. Whenever camp was pitched in any inhabited neigh- bourhood for more than twenty-four hours, the natives came in early the next morning, bringing with them meal, maize, pumpkins, eggs, fowls, and occasionally a goat. T'wenty or more would come together; sometimes they displayed great diffidence in approaching the waggon. The women invariably took up their position fifty yards or more away in a distinct group, and would there modestly remain unless attracted by a crisis in the inevitable bargaining, or by the display of some particularly tempting trading article. The most useful articles for use in barter were found to be small white glass beads with pink eyes or entirely pink, “limbo” or coarse calico, both blue and white, and coarse salt; the latter is particularly appreciated, and possesses purchasing power altogether disproportionate to its cost. From time to time the fashion in trading articles changes, and it is found that the natives are particularly fastidious as to the colour of the beads or the quality of the “limbo” offered them. The common food of the Mashonas is a thick slabby porridge, made of millet meal; of this they eat from two to three pounds a day. They are extremely glad to vary the monotony of this diet by meat of any kind, and it has been found politic by their white masters to keep them in good humour by gratifying this taste once a month or so. Field-rats are hunted and eagerly eaten. When the grass is being burnt, they are driven out by the fire and speared by the Mashonas in the open. Cater- pillars—those of the large green silvery kind especially—are gathered from the trees, strung on a bark string, and carried home as a delicacy. Locusts are collected, deprived of their wings, and eaten fried. Wild honey is also greatly appreciated. It is found in large quantities in hollow trees and rocks. The honey-bird leads both men and beasts, with its loud distracting twittering, to the hive it has discovered, with the hope of sharing in the spoils, when the hive has been broken open and the honey exposed. Beehives are fashioned out of bark by the J NOTES IN EASTERN MASHONALAND. 45 natives, and are often to be noticed in the neighbourhood of the kraals, perched in the forked branches of a tree. The luxuries, indulged in by the Mashonas, appear to be confined to tobacco, not usually smoked, but taken as snuff, and beer manufactured from the seed of the millet. Drunkenness is an uncommon vice, except amongst certain of the chiefs. In the coast districts hemp is smoked in a hookah pipe of simple construction. A long narrow gourd forms the body of the pipe. Halfway down it a hole is made of a convenient size for applying the lips. The gourd is filled with water halfway to the level of the hole. Through the closed top is inserted a small hollow reed, reaching nearly to the bottom of the water, and protruding wel] beyond the upper end of the gourd. To the upper end of the reed is fixed the clay or stone bowl of the pipe, and this is of very small size, capable of holding only a sufficient quantity of hemp for a few whiffs. The smoker, holding the gourd upright to prevent the escape of the water, applies his lips to the hole, and draws the smoke to his lungs, through the water, by two or three vigorous inhalations. The result is made known to the whole neighbourhood by a violent, and apparently purposely exaggerated, coughing and spluttering ; the louder the cough the keener appears to be the enjoyment of the smoker and his com- panions. The pipe is passed round, until the whole of the smokers are engaged in violent contortions, accompanied by an almost terrifying coughing. The young men and boys, attached to the party as survey hands, displayed uncommon quickness and intelligence, and very soon became amenable to discipline. ‘hey appeared to take an interest in doing their work well, and were broken in to their somewhat difficult duties more easily than many labourers who have been trained to similar work in England. It was found that the Mashonas are willing enough to work if treated well; they are, however, stubborn and of an intensely suspicious nature. Their confidence in the promises of the white man has unfortu- nately received many shocks, and it is not to be wondered at that their trust is shaken. The men are averse to heavy manual labour, and it is characteristic of them that they employ their women for this distasteful work. Gangs of the latter were frequently seen with their babies slung across their back, leaning painfully over their short double-handed hoes, engaged in tilling the ground. Returning from Mashonaland in November, 1893, a stay of three weeks was made in Beira. During that time the following maximum and minimum shade temperatures were noted :— November 5,5.45a.m, Fabr., minimum. 10.30 a.m. ins 95° Fahr., maximum. These observations were taken in the coolest part of Beira, ina verandah exposed to the sea-breezes; in other parts of the town temperatures of over 100° were more than once registered. x 46 NOTES ON MR. SELOUS’S MAP OF MASHONALAND AND MANIKA. The average reading of the barometer at sea-level during this period was 30 inches; the highest reading recorded in three weeks was 30-07 inches, the lowest 29°76 inches. Shade temperatures were taken on the march from Chiruvu Hills to Chimoio, in June. The following extracts will serve to give a good idea of the temperature during that month. Chiruvu Hills— June 15, 6.15 a.m., sunrise... .» 57° Fahr., minimum. » 16, 3.45 p.m. .. 78° ,, maximum, in shade. On March from Chiruvu to Chimoio— June 22, 6.15 a.m., sunrise... ... 44° Fahr., minimum. » 20, midday ans 80° ,, maximum. Average temperature in shade Chimoio— June 23,5.50 am. ... ... 42° Fahr. » 10 pm. . ,, June is the coldest month in the year. On the return journey to the coast in November no reliable observations were taken ; there is no doubt, however, that the temperature was from 15° to 20° higher than in June. The writer is indebted to Messrs. Livesey, Son and Henderson, for permission to make use of the map and of the notes collected while in their service. His thanks are also due to Messrs. D. G: Davies, R. de Candolle, F. Creswell, and H. Parkes, for assistance, photographs, and sketches. NOTES ON MR. SELOUS’S MAP OF MASHONALAND AND MANIKA.* By E. G. RAVENSTEIN. TE map is intended, firstly and chiefly, to illustrate the work done by Mr. Selous whilst in the service of the South Africa Company ; and secondly, to embody, as far as possible, the knowledge which we possess of the entire region extending from Fort Salisbury to the northward as far as the Zambezi, and to the eastward as far as the Lower Pungwe. Unfortunately for the map compiler, events in Africa sometimes march so quickly that he is not able to keep abreast of them. And thus, since the completion of the present map, information has been received from M. Décle, Mr. Coryndon, and Mr. Swan ¢ which could not be utilized ; * Map, p. 96. + Mr. Swan, by observations made recently, places Victoria in lat. 20° 3’ 40”S., 80° 51’ E. | : | ; i ; i i NOTES ON MR. SELOUS’S MAP OF MASHONALAND AND MANIKA. 47 and the railway between the “75-mile peg” and Chimoio, although open for traffic, could not be inserted. Mr. Selous’s manuscript maps have been deposited in the map-room of the Royal Geographical Society. They are as follows :— 1. Compass survey, showing routes during a year’s employment in the service of the B.S.A. Company, September 1, 1890, to September, 1891. Scale 1: 255,000. 2. Sketch-map, showing route of Manika Mission from Fort Charter to Umtasa’s, and from thence to camp near Mount Wedza; also routes taken by Mr. Selous from camp near Mount Wedza to Makoni’s, Mang- wendi’s, Maranka’s, and back to Makoni’s. Scale 1 : 255,000. 8. Sketch of routes from Umtali to Mapanda (Pungwe) and back, 1891. Scale 1 : 255,000. 4. Sketch of Mashonaland, showing tribal boundaries. Scale 1; 255,000. 5. Rough survey-map of the countries ruled over by the Makorikori chiefs, for which a mineral concession has been granted to the Selous Exploration Syndicate. Scale 1: 210,000. 6. About thirty sheets of manuscript maps and rounds of angles, utilized in the compilation of Nos. 1 to 4. Mr. Selous has determined neither latitudes nor longitudes, but his long-distance compass bearings have enabled him to lay down a network of triangles which connects Fort Salisbury with Masikesi, These triangles include Fort Charter, Sengedza, and Maranka’s in the south, Mount Mtemwa in the north, and Mount Dombo in the east, and Mr. Coles, under whose direction this triangulation was laid down by Mr. Darbishire, informs me that the distance between Fort Salisbury and Masikesi, as resulting therefrom, only differs to the extent of about a mile from that obtained by careful astronomical observations made at the two terminal points.* The greater portion of Mr. Selous’s compass bearings were taken during the rainy season, when the air is very clear, and landmarks can be seen at great distances. Mr, Selous also determined numerous altitudes by aneroid, but of the results he says himself that “they are of little value.” The same remark might be applied with more or less justice to all other deter- minations of altitude, as far as we are able to test them, and the figures inserted upon the map should be accepted merely as approximative.+ Mr. Selous’s routes during 1890-91 are shown in red upon the map. * Fort Salisbury, 170° 49’ 30” S., 31° 4’ E. (Surveyor-General Duncan, by tele- graphic time-signals); Andrada, near Masikesi, 18° 53’ 33” S., 32° 51’ 24” E. (Captain 8. C. N. Grant, by moon culminating stars). + Assuming the barometrical observations made at Fort Salisbury by Major F. W. Forbes, February, 1891, to July, 1892, to have been corrected for instrumental errors, and to represent true means at 34° Fahr., the altitude of that place would be 4800 feet. 2 AY 48 NOTES ON MR. SELOUS’S MAP OF MASHONALAND AND MANIKA, For his earlier routes, es far back as 1874, the map published in vol. i. of the Geographical Journal may be consulted. Little need be said about the other materials made use of in the de- lineation of the plateau of Mashonaland. The edge of the plateau is shown, as a matter of course, in accordance with Major J. J. Leverson’s ‘Map of the Anglo-Portuguese Boundary in East Africa,” originally published by the Intelligence Division of the War Office, and re- produced, on a reduced scale, in the Geographical Journal. The originals of the maps of Mr. R. M. W. Swan (who accompanied Mr. Bent), of Sir Hugh Willoughby, and the Rt. Rev. G. W. H. Knight- Bruce, now in the possession of the Royal Geographical Society, were consulted, as was also the work of earlier explorers, among whom Mr. Baines will ever occupy a most distinguished place. A “ Plan of the Manika Gold Route from surveys made in 1892 by W. Wybergh, T. Bayne, and R. 8. Fairbridge,” and published by Juta of Cape Town, proved of some service. The route eastward from Victoria to the head- waters of the Lusitu is taken from Mr. Stanford’s map, and that taken in 1893 by the Salisbury and Victoria Field Columns in their march from Fort Charter to Buluwayo is derived from a rough sketch by Sir John Willoughby, lent me by the Intelligence Division. All latitudes, ob- tained by astronomical observations, have been inserted. The delineation of the Zambezi river still depends in a large measure upon the positions determined by Dr. Livingstone and Captains Capello and Ivens. The Admiralty Chart No. 1577 is based upon recent surveys only as respects the river below Sena. Nearly all above the town, as far as the Kabrabassa rapids, is taken from very unsatisfactory Portuguese maps, among which that by Affonso de Moraes Sarmento, based upon information collected in 1877-80, and a more recent “Sketch,” published by the Commissio de Geographia in 1889, are the most important. These two maps abound in details, but are evidently not based upon actual “surveys,” and it is frequently quite impossible to combine the information which they contain with informa- tion derived from other sources. The region immediately to the south of the Zambezi, between Kachomba and Tete, and as far as the lower Mazoe, has been traversed by Livingstone, Capello and Ivens, A. M. Pacheco,* Paiva de Andrada, Selous, Montague Kerr, Sir John Willoughby, Carlos Wiese,t and more recently by M. Décle, but none of these explorers have allowed them- selves sufficient time to produce a good map of their routes. Mr. Selous, with his usual modesty, refers to his map of this region as being “ better than nothing.” As a matter of fact, the maps of the other explorers * Pacheco, ‘Uma viagem de Tete & Zumbo.’ Mogambique, 1883: (no map). + Wiese, “ Expedigio Portugueza a Mpezene, 1889” (Boletim of the Portuguese Geogr. Soc., 1891). 1 : ‘ : 1 ; 4 4 4 a = NOTES ON MR. SELOUS’S MAP OF MASHONALAND AND MANIKA, 49 mentioned are no better than his, and a regular survey of the whole of the Zambezi valley, including the region to the north and south of the Kabrabassa rapids, is much to be desired. For the upper Zambezi, in addition to the materials already referred to, some information was taken from Dr. M. A. de Lacerda’s rough but useful map of the “ Prazos ” of the district of Zumbo, published in 1890. The south-eastern portion of the map is largely based upon Portuguese explorations, and among all the explorers whose names I have inserted Colonel Paiva de Andrada occupies the foremost place, not only because he has traversed the country in every direction, but also because he determined numerous positions by astronomical observations. Only fragmentary accounts of his travels have been published, but most of his routes, as also those of Captain Augusto de Castilho and Gorjao de Mouro, will be found upon the Portuguese maps.* Much useful work has been done since the foundation of the Mozam- bique Company in 1891. I believe M. Pouhin was the first to recon- noitre the country with a view to the building of a railway; but his map, kindly lent me by the Beira Railway Company, is of very doubtful authority. By far the most important work on that part of Portuguese East Africa, published up till now, is Capt. J. Renato Baptista’s Report on surveys made in 1891 between the Lower Pungwe and Busi and Masi Kesi, with the view of discovering a route suitable for a railway. t These surveys, unfortunately, were prematurely interrupted, and the line ultimately adopted by the engineers of the Beira Railway Company lies far to the north of the routes explored by Capt. Baptista. The route from the Lower Pungwe to Masi Kesi is partly based upon a manuscript sketch by Major Leverson, and upon Mr. R, Fairbridge’s map of the coast route to Mashonaland (Cape Town : Juta, 1893). The total distance from Sarmento to Andrada (Masi Kesi) is 75 miles according to Major Leverson, 90 miles according to Captain Baptista, 77 miles according to Mr. Fairbridge,and 75 miles according to Mr. Selous, whilst I made it 82 miles. The discrepancy, however, is much greater, for between Sarmento and Chimoio there are 39 miles according to Mr. Fairbridge, but 58 according to Major Leverson. I have accepted 45 miles, or one mile in excess of the distance given by Mr. Selous. A systematic survey of the whole of this region is much to be desired. It would, of course, have to include the determination of a few fixed points, for which the existing lines of telegraph offer every facility, and an “expeditive” triangulation of the whole territory. * J. X.de Moraes Pinto, Carta do Districto de Manica, 1885, scale 1: 803,000; A. A. de Oliveira, Carta do Districto de Manica, 1887, scale 1: 2,000,000; and E. de Vasconcellas, Esbogo das Bacias dos Rios Pungue, Revue e parte do Busio, 1891, scale 1: 500,000. For an account of Mouro’s punitive expedition, see Boletim Lisbon Geogr. Soc., viii., 1888-9. + ‘Africa Oriental. Caminho de Ferro da Beira a Manica.’ Lisbon, 1$92. With map on a scale of 1: 500,000. No. I.—January, 1895.] ae : THE GERMAN EXPEDITION TO ADAMAWA.* By Dr. PASSARGE. ‘Tanks to the assistance afforded to the undertaking by the Royal Niger Company, the expedition reached Yola with seventy porters on August 31, 1893, having left Berlin in June. From Garua, a town with a promising future, which formed the base of operations of the expedition, an advance was first made by way of Laddo to Bubanjidda. This land, originally a vassal state of Yola, has ever since Barth’s time asserted its independence, and, secure in its position on the group of mountains rising centrally from a broad plain, a warlike robber-state has arisen here, which lives at enmity with all its neighbours, and each year increases its territory by war. Though at first received in a friendly way, the expedition was treacherously attacked at Jirum, two hours’ march from the capital, Rei Buba. The unmanage- able nature of the caravan of donkeys, with which the expedition was equipped in order to save porters, prevented advantage being taken of the complete victory which was gained. A return was made to Garua, and it was determined now to press forward to Bagirmi by way of Marua. For several days the march led through an undulating gneiss region, above which massive granite ridges, all running from east to west, rose to a height of 2600 feet. In association with them numerous bands of porphyry are noteworthy, all with a dip of 35°. With the eastern slope of the Mandara range, and the broad plain which stretches away beyond the Shari, the region of independent heathen races is reached, by which the sultanate of Marua is separated from the rest of Adamawa, and which harass the caravan-road with their robberies. The caravans are accustomed to cross the district, which is two days’ march broad, by night only. The pagans belong to the stocks of the Mattafall, Usuel, and Musugoi, and are related to the Musgu, having the same small ponies of the pagan breed, and the same throwing-knives, but with them the bow and arrows of the Fulla. The only covering of the men is a sheath woven of grass, while the women content themselves with a narrow lappet passed between the legs. On December 23 the expedition reached the broad and fertile plain of Marua, and passed, one after another, the large towns of Songoia, Kattual, and Miskin. It is rather an under- than an over-estimate to say that on this one day two or three hundred thousand natives were passed. The Arab invasion of Bagirmi here put an end to all attempts at further progress. The expedition again turned towards the south in order to reach Ngaumdere (this, and not Ngaundere, is the spelling of the Fulla). The beautiful mountainous districts of Adamawa that were passed through are inhabited by isolated pagan tribes, mostly in only nominal dependence on the Fulla, and their representatives came to the forest encampments of the caravan to exchange their yams and millet for beads and salt. They belong to the race of the Durru, which formerly peopled the land much more thickly. Countless traces of former settlements are met with, existing in an almost imperishable form by the hollowed stones on which the women of the village once pounded the corn into meal, and which last for centuries. The escarpment of the South African plateau stretches like a wall from east to west, and when the traveller has mounted its height of 1600 feet, he finds himself on a broad grassy upland, on which the town of Ngaumdere, containing about thirty thousand inhabitants, lies at the foot of some granite ranges. The town is * Paper read at the Berlin Geographical Society, July 7, 1894. THE GERMAN EXPEDITION TO ADAMAWA. 51 strongly fortified with wall and trench; it is the richest sultanate of Adamawa, and has spread its conquests over the pagan lands, principally to the south. On the return journey to Ibi, the expedition first followed the old route of Flegel as far as the Faro, and then proceeded by new routes over the Chebchi range, which has a height of 6500 feet, and stretches like a long wall in the direction of the volcanic line through Fernando Po and the Cameroons, and of which the Mandara range is the northern continuation. It is inhabited by the independent Dekkawa, who are perhaps allied to the Battawa. Crossing the fertile plain of Muri, the expedition reached Bantaji and Ibi, and arrived at Akassa on March 20, Adamawa is in its essential features a mountainous land, traversed by the depression of the Benue valley running from east to west, In consequence of the occurrence of two distinct tectonic directions, the mountain structure is very com- plicated, and there is frequent alternation of mountain groups and plains. It must be said, in general, that the development of large states has been hindered by the broken nature of the land. The vegetation consists for the most part of mixed bush-forest, 7.e. of moderate-sized trees and shrubs, now close together and now far apart, between which grass grows, often without underwood, The mountain woods of Combretacew, which are clothed in January with fresh bright-green foliage, with a gloss like that of varnish, are especially noticeable. True savannahs and park-like landscapes are only met with locally, primeval forests are altogether wanting, while extensive grassy plains cover the upland region near Ngaumdere. Animal life nowhere forces itself into notice. Antelopes (springbok and harte- beests) are never quite absent, it is true, but are met with singly asarule, The extensive wildernesses on the Faro above Chamba are especially rich in large animals, elephants, rhinoceros, and buffaloes occurring in large numbers, together with large Carnivore. The inhabitants of Adamawa are very varied. ‘I'wo large groups, differing in religion and nationality, can be distinguished. The Mohammedans are com- posed of Fulla, Haussa, Kanuri, and Arabs, among which the Fulla are the most powerful race. Their tall slim stature, fine Caucasian features, wavy hair, and clear yellowish-red colour, distinguish them sharply from the negroes, The various grades of admixture between the two can often be studied. The clear colour is the first to disappear, next the face and figure become plump and fleshy, while the shape of the skull and the relatively long and narrow face are retained the longest. While there are few pure Fulla ia the Haussa lands, they are here very frequently seen, especially in the small states of Central Adamawa. The nomadic Fulla—Borroro—who have retained the mode of life of their ancestors, move with their herds of cattle from one district to another. One but seldom gets asight of the men—lusty individuals adorned with brass rings and feathers, and clothed in skins—whereas the women, who are at once recognized by the brass rings in their ears, and their coiffure consisting of numerous plaits, come frequently into the towns to sell milk and butter. The stationary Fulla have, as a rule, adopted the dwellings and manner of life of the subject races, and have the same round clay huts with pointed grass roofs, the same mat fences cutting off the separate houses, as are in use in the Haussa lands. The Arabs, who live in isolated settlements, as, e.g.,at Yola and Garua, do not in the remotest degree play the part which they do in Wadai and Bornu. Whilst the Mohammedans occupy the rich plains, large towns, and trade routes of the country, the pagans principally inhabit the mountainous tracts. They are divided into single large tribes, as the Batta, Dekka, Durru, Falli, Mundang, and Baja, which speak different languages. The important states of Lére, Lame, and Lakka, have since Barth’s time hindered all advance of the Fulla. As a rule, E 2 | : x | | 52 THE GERMAN EXPEDITION TO ADAMAWA. however, each town forms a state in itself, and constant feuds separate the tribes. The physical type is mostly robust but ugly, with the characteristic round, broad, and plump negro countenance. The original dress of the men must have been bark- cloths, or the simple sheath above mentioned, while many tribes may have gone quite naked. But in their intercourse with the Fulla, they have now for the most part adopted their clothing, and each wears at least a fragment of cloth. The women, on the other hand, have been more conservative, and still wear only a string of beads round the hips, to which a bunch of leaves is fastened before and bebind. The pagans are very skilled smiths, and supply the greater part of the weapons for the whole of Adamawa and the central Sudan. ‘They also supply much of the salt from the ashes of plants, which is a bluish-grey powder, and tastes strongly of potash salts. The political relations of Adamawa can only be elucidated by the history of the land, of which we know but few positive facts. The Fulla appear to have intruded as cattle-rearers into pagan Adamawa as far back as the fifteenth century, and to have occupied the upland plains between Bango, ‘Tibati, and Ngaumdere. When, at the beginning of this century, the movement of the Fulla in this direction from Gando and Sokoto, based on political and religious grounds, began, the victorious Fulla forced their way into Adamawa, which was already strewn with numerous Fulla colonies. The history of the Fulla states of Adamawa thus differs from that of those of all other parts, since they were built up, not on the foundation of previous civilized communities, as those of the Haussas, Nupe, or Sonrhai, but on the ruins of uncivilized heathen races. The indigenous races were conquered—the Batta in the Benue valley between Yola and Garua first of all—and this fertile valley became the cradle of the Fulla states of Adamawa; the victorious Fulla pushed constantly forwards, and with the help of the Borroro, already on the spot, the foundation of the important states of Buban Jidda, Ngaumdere, ‘Tibati, and Banyo, all placed in lands suitable for cattle-rearing, was successfully carried out. The organization of the new states proceeded thus. The Emir of Yola, the first Fulla state of Adamawa, which had itself been furmed under the banner of Sokoto, gave the newly conquered land to the leader of the army, the latter having to pay a definite yearly tribute and to supply a contingent to the army, while his successors had to recognize the suzerainty of the Emir of Yola. The new king on his part divided the land into smaller portions on the same terms on which he himself had been set up. The Fulla have thus formed a feudal state, as fully developed as any that existed in Europe in the middle ages, and the development has run the same course here as there, and has led to a complete decentralization. The vassals are sometimes more powerful than the liege lord, and are now only nominally dependent. The Fullas became in part settled on the land, and cultivated the fields with the help of the captured slaves. The rich land became a favourable field for the activity of enterprising Haussas and Kanuris, who settled down as merchants, weavers, potters, dyers, etc., and exchanged their products chiefly for slaves and ivory. The pagans were more and more pressed, and became subject voluntarily and paid tribute, or retired leaving unpeopled wildernesses behind them. In the central Fulla states a balance of power was soon established ; the slave-raids ceased, or brought in but little proceeds. The chief source of the wealth of the Fulla was exhausted, the cattle-plague of recent years has destroyed the stock of cattle, and the Fulla is impoverished and burdened with debt, while the active Haussa and Kanuri have become rich. Even the Fulla chieftains are already in a state of pecuniary dependence, and have usually their Haussa bankers, to whom they are MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA, 53 deeply in debt. It has been otherwise with the development of the exterior states, such as Tibati, Ngaumdere, and Buban Jidda. With boundless pagan lands before them, they have constantly extended their supremacy, and slave-raids have become for them an inexhaustible source of wealth. True though it is that whole tribes have been annihilated, whole lands devastated by the spread of the Mohammedans, one good has resulted from this advance of the Fulla, namely, the opening of these regions to trade. The Haussa trader fetches ivory from Nyila on the Sannaga, from the Shari, the Sanga, and Logone, in order to bring it to Yola and the markets of the Sudan. A new element, which will constantly become of more decided importance, both for the political and economic relations of the central Sudan, and which has already brought about great changes, is the European trade on the Niger and Benue. Down to a recent date, the Sudan had intercourse with the Mediterranean lands and Europe across the Sahara. Ivory, ostrich-feathers, and slaves were exported in exchange for European wares. One of the most important articles of trade was salt, brought from the desert by Tuaregs and Arabs. Since the impulse given to European trade on the Benue, the Sudan has been flooded with European stuffs, salt, etc., in such quantities, and at such a cheap rate, that the trade across the desert has been completely ruined. Adamawa was, and is still, the main region of export for ivory and slaves. All the trade now goes to Yola in the hulks of the Royal Niger Company. Ivory, caoutchouc, indigo, ground-nuts, and sesamum are the articles of export dealt in there. It is to be foreseen that a war of extermina- tion must break out between the Fulla and European civilization; for the Fulla lives by slave-hunting—it is the source of his wealth. He is of necessity an opponent of European culture. The future of this land is in the hands of that energetic race of born traders, the Haussas, whose speech even now forms the most important organ of intercourse from the Senegal to the Shari. MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA.* By Professor A. P. COLEMAN, Ph.D., School of Practical Science, Toronto. Txose two giants, Mounts Brown and Hooker, which on the maps stand guard over the Committee’s Punchbowl in the Athabasca pass, have long had a certain fascination for me. Geographers give them an alti- tude of nearly 16,000 feet,t much surpassing any other mountains in the United States or Canada; but there seems no record as to who determined the reputed heights, nor how the work was done. They were named after two distinguished English botanists by Douglas, who crossed the pass in 1826; but having been unable to obtain the copy of the Geographical Society’s Journal in which the results of his travels are recorded, I cannot say whether he assigned the heights generally given. To reach Mount Brown is not so easy as it looks upon the map. An attempt made by a friend and myself by canoe on the Columbia and its * Map, p. 96. + Keith Johnston’s ‘ Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena,’ p. 26, gives 15,900 feet for Mount Brown, and 15,700 for Mount Hooker. Reclus, in his ‘ Nouvelle Géographie Dniverselle, p. 261, gives the latter mountain a height of 16,980 feet. : ; ae 54 MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA. tributary Wood river failed through an upset in Surprise rapids. A second attempt made with ponies on the eastern flank of the Rockies in 1892 was likewise unsuccessful, partly from the uselessness of the Indian guides employed, and partly from the sickness of a member of the party. A third expedition, consisting of Mr. Stewart, Mr. L. Q. Coleman, and the writer, with Frank Sibbald as cook and packer, succeeded in reaching and climbing Mount Brown last summer (1893); and it is proposed to give a brief account in this paper of the work done, and the country traversed. We left Morley, a point on the Canadian Pacific Railway just east of the Rockies, on the 8th of July, and for three days urged our ponies north-westward through the foothills parallel to the Palliser range, a few miles to the south-west. The valleys traversed have the usual muskeg bottoms and grassy sides, dotted with small bushes of willow and knotched-leaved birch; while the hills, 500 to 1000 feet high, are fringed on top and on the moister northern side with poplars and Douglas spruce. The trail then turned through a “gap” with bare cliffs facing east- ward, and followed the Red Deer river, a tributary of the Saskatchewan, into the mountains, traversing a valley, partly wooded and partly prairie, giving charming scenes of river, meadow, and grove backed by moderately lofty mountains. The altitude of Morley is about 4000 feet, and our first camp in the Rockies, at the Mountain Park, was a little below 5000. The route turns aside from the Red Deer about 10 miles from the gap, across a pass at 6500 feet, and descends to the well-named Clear- water river not far from its exit from the mountains. A mountain near the summit of the pass rises to 8500 feet, and is perhaps a few hundred feet lower than the average of the region. The Clearwater owes its character to its passage through two pretty lakes not far from its source. These lakes are about 6000 feet above the sea. After following the Clearwater some miles to the westward, the trail turns north-west once more, passing through narrow valleys and over a pass rising slightly above tree-line (7300 feet). The head waters of Atikosipi are crossed, another pass traversed, and White Rabbit creek is followed down to its junction with the Saskatchewan on the Kootenay plains. These plains, 4600 feet above the ocean, are really an inlet of the prairie* 7 miles long and 2 or 3 wide, having the same sward of green or sere grasses and vetches, or of sage and wormwood in drier parts. Sunflowers and flax were in full bloom on the 17th of July, and * See Dr. Hector’s report in ‘Captain Palliser’s Expedition,’ p. 111, ete. MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA. 55 great tufts of harebells made tempting mouthfuls for the ponies as they jogged over the elastic turf, happy to be on level ground once more. The scenery is admirable, combining the beauty of the prairie with grand mountain forms, the more distant ones white with snow and glaciers. One splendid peak, projecting into the plains on the north of the river, is formed of a great anticlinal fold, an unusual structure in the eastern Rockies, where the prevailing type is of tilted blocks. As this mountain commands views up or down five long valleys, we named it Sentinel mountain. Skulls of buffalo and their numerous trails and wallows, show that the Kootenay plains were once a favourite feeding-ground for these almost extinct animals. According to the Stony Indians, snow never lies here in winter, from the frequent Chinook winds. The route we had followed thus far is the usual road of the Mountain Stonies toward their more northern hunting-grounds, and has often been traversed by white men. ‘he trai] here divides up, one branch turning up-river to Howse pass, by which the Columbia may be reached ;* another down the Saskatchewan toward the plains and Edmonton. The river is already a powerful stream here at its exit from the mountains. In 1892 we found it just fordable for ponies at a point where gravel islands divide it into six channels. Last summer, however, all the rivers were high from the unusually heavy snows of the previous winter, and we found the Saskatchewan quite anfordable, as chief Jonas and othér Indians had forewarned us. We went down-stream till the river flowed in a single channel, swam the horses over, and ferried our stuff with a canvas boat we had brought for such purposes. From this point onwards to the Athabasca pass is practically virgin ground. Though a few prospectors have followed up some of the northern tributaries of the Saskatchewan, there is, so far as I am aware, no printed record of their journeys. The route followed by Earl Southesk ¢ was probably farther to the east, since we could not fit his map and descriptions to the region through which we travelled. Palliser’s map proved quite useless. In the previous summer our Indian guides had led us quite astray, taking us out into the foothills and through wretched muskeg trails to the Brazeau. Here we took matters into our own hands, and followed up this river into the mountains again, On our way home we followed a wild pass up Job’s creek, and down Rock creek to the Kootenay plains. Last summer we took a more direct route which my brother had used the year before, following up the Hahasigi-wapta, or Cataract river, as the Stony name may be * See Mr. Sandford Fleming’s ‘ Expeditions to the Pacific,’ in the Roy. Soe. Can. Journals, 1889, Sec. II. p. 89, etc.; also Dr. Hector’s report in Captain Palliser’s ‘Exploration in British America.’ + ‘Saskatchewan and the Rocky Mountains.’ | } 2 = 2 56 MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA. translated. This enters the Saskatchewan just at the foot of Sentinel mountains, and is there so deep and swift as to be fordable with difficulty. It takes its source 40 miles to the westward in a delightful lake of blue-green water, cold and trout-haunted, fed by a magnificent spring 40 feet wide. Pinto lake, as we named it, is 5850 feet above the sea. A single range of mountains separates the valley of the cataract from that of the Saskatchewan to the south. Turning north-west from Pinto lake, we crossed a divide, which may be called Cataract pass, rising 7550 feet above the sea, and made our way down to the Brazeau, one of the largest tributaries of the Sas- katchewan. The pass is not an easy one, since snow-slides have mowed down the forest for half a mile in width at one place, and the fallen trunks make a most disheartening obstacle for ponies to cross. At the summit we found so much snow on July 24, that a wide détour up the mountain side was necessary to gain safe footing for our horses. Several glaciers come down to the level of the pass, and one feeds an indigo-coloured pond amidst the snows of the summit. The peaks on each side are of a very bold and rugged character. A sharp descent of 1200 feet leads to the head-waters of the Brazeau, whose valley is walled in by high mountains of the tilted block or inclined plane type, having steep escarpments toward the north-east, and a slope, following the dip of the strata, of 25° to 50° toward the south-west. A number of the peaks which we climbed rose above 9000 feet, and one at the head of the river reached 10,150. Few or no summits toward the east rise higher than this, but a number of those seen toward the west are much higher. The previous summer we followed the north fork of the Brazeau up to a lake 5 miles long,* and then crossed by Poboktan pass f and creek to the Sun-wapta; but this year we took a more direct pass suggested by chief Jonas. The trail climbs quickly up through ever- green woods into a narrow desvlate side valley, treeless for 7 or 8 miles, and clammy with half-melted snow from a storm the night before, when we crossed it. The descent towards the Sun-wapta leads over muskegs, past beaver ponds, and through horrible burnt woods where the soil has been consumed, leaving sharp stones that roll under the horses’ feet on the steep side of the gorge. The pass, which we named for chief Jonas, reaches 7700 feet, and has a rapid descent to the Sun-wapta at 5000 feet. From a height of 10,000 feet on a mountain near by we looked down upon the valley, where the river spreads out into narrow interlacing channels like a skein of ravelled silk flung upon the ground—a common feature of glacial streams near their head-waters. They are perpetually clogging their channels with * Unccnnected with any river on those maps which show it at all. + So named from the owls which we saw on the trees near by. : : MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA, 57 a burden of pebbles and rock flour, through which they must seek new outlets. Across the valley from our mountain a huge dome-shaped mass of snow, rising much above our level and brooded over by heavy clouds, sent long glacier tongues down into the valley between black precipices. The higher points in the group evidently rose several thousand feet above the one on which we stood. We estimated the highest peaks at 13,000 feet, or perhaps a little more. Dr. Hector gives a similar estimate for the highest summits near Howse pass, 10 or 15 miles to the south-west. We may have been looking at opposite sides of the same mountains. The Sun-wapta (Stony name) is a large and rapid river, fordable with difficulty at most points, a tributary of the Athabasca not shown on the maps. We followed it down-stream from the mouth of Jonas creek, passing a tremendous rock-slide, where a cubic mile of quartzite has slipped from a mountain on the right shore, damming the river so as to form rapids, and hurling blocks many cubic yards in bulk half a mile up the opposite slope. This event took place not very long ago, for the yellow scar on the mountain has not yet turned grey with lichen growth. Five miles below Jonas creek we passed the mouth of Poboktan creek, and pushed our way over trails so encumbered with fallen timber as to require much chopping, till the mouth of the Sunwapta was reached. There is a fine waterfall af this point, and a still finer one a few miles farther down on the Athabasca. The united stream, 100 yards wide and quite unfordable, plunges 60 or 70 feet into a very narrow canon, so narrow that some daring man has flung a few tree- trunks across as a bridge. It is on the whole the grandest falls we saw in the Rockies, though not more beautiful than some in the caiion of the Brazeau. At last the trail suddenly became well blazed and beaten, unlike previous portions, which cannot have been travelled for several years. We came upon stretches of prairie delightful to behold after weeks of forest. One evening the half bark, half laugh of coyotes drifted up from a distance, delighting the heart of Sibbald, our packer, who is a true plainsman, and declared that it was a decent country where there were coyotes. After long days of battle with burnt woods, whose charred trunks and branches smear and smudge hands and face and clothing, after night camps pitched Letween shadeless black trees on a soil of sand and ashes, there is an endless charm in camping on a meadow of soft green grass, beside a brook shaded by clumps of willow. Following the trail through the woods, we missed the mouth of Whirlpool river, for which we were aiming, and, reaching the Miette a few miles farther down, took it for the river we were in search of. A 58 MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA, day or two later, the difference in latitude, the wrong direction of the valley, and the finding of railway survey pegs convinced us that we had entered the Yellowhead pass (Tete Jaune), where a survey was made a number of years ago for a projected route of the Canadian Pacific Railway. A trading post, Henry House, is placed opposite the mouth of the Miette on the maps; but, as we could find no trace of it, probably it has been destroyed and the site overgrown with bushes. The law of the map-maker is apparently that of the consistent Calvinist, “ once in grace always in grace.” Marks on the trail showed that a party having horses much larger than ours had gone over it a few days before we arrived. Retracing our steps, we ferried once more across the Athabasca, and followed the impetuous, sea-green Whirlpool river to its source. Once ’ a much-travelled thoroughfare of the Hudson Bay Company and rail- way explorers, the Athabasca pass has now fallen into disuse. Portions of the trail have been swept away by the river, and many other parts we found impassable without hard chopping. The valley is interesting. At one point a glacier comparable to that of the Rhone sends its blue ice front almost to the level of the river at 4400 feet, and supplies a third of its water. Other large glaciers provide the rest of the flood farther up the valley, until at the watershed the Whirlpool dwindles into an insignificant rivulet rising in a pretty little tarn, the Committee’s Punchbowl, which masquerades on many maps as a lake 8 or 10 miles long.* A rill trickles southward from the other end of the “ bowl,” which thus divides its snow-fed waters between the Arctic and Pacific oceans at points thousands of miles apart. Moberly gives the elevation of the Punchbowl as 6025 feet, but our observations made it only 5710 feet. Mount Brown greatly disappointed us. The only summit correspond- ing to its position on the maps, just west or north-west of the Punch- bowl, was climbed by Mr. Stewart and my brother, and turned out to be little, if any, more than 9000 feet high. They found no difficulty in the ascent, except a mile of steep snowfield, until just beneath the summit, where a cornice of snow proved unscaleable. Readings of an aneroid and of a boiling-point thermometer, when compared with readings at camp, give a height of 3340 feet above the pass, or 8950 feet above the sea; and they estimate the thickness of the snow cornice covering the crest at less than 100 feet. From the top no higher mountains were to be seen west of the pass, so that there is no doubt the right mountain was climbed. Mount Brown must descend, then, * Alex. Ross in ‘The Fur-Hunters of the Far West,’ 1855, vol. ii. p. 188, ete, gives a correct account of the pass, which he crossed in winter. oom er N m mn : ea i ne ac : : bi » MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA. 59 from the position long accorded to it, of being the highest summit in North America between Mexico and Alaska. It has no right to be mentioned in connection with Mount St. Elias in Alaska, nor Orizaba in Mexico, much less with the recently discovered Mount Logan, just east of the Alaskan frontier in the Canadian north-west territory.* The case of Mount Hooker we found less easy to settle. The point nearest its position, as given on the map, is only about 8000 feet high according to aneroid readings taken by Mr. Stewart and my brother; but a handsome glacier-covered mountain, just east of the Punchbowl, probably reaches 11,000 feet, and there are summits a few miles to the south-east that may reach 12,000 or 13,000 feet, though lack of time pre- vented their ascent. The Punchbowl, reflecting gloomy mountain flanks and snowfields, suggested no ideas of conviviality. The little meadow beside it, sur- rounded by stunted spruce groves, was enlivened with some flowers. Marmots sounded their alarm whistle from behind every rock when any sound, like the chopping of wood, disturbed them. A cinnamon bear walked calmly down into the patch of meadow, surveyed us a moment, and turned courteously into the woods so as not to disturb our privacy. Caribon left their large hoof-prints on the river flats not far away, and mountain sheep and goats doubtless watched us from afar ; but the general effect of the surroundings was lifeless and austere. On our return journey we made a détour to visit Fortress lake, dis- covered the summer before, and named from a prominent mountain on its shores. We retraced our steps down the whirlpool, turned up the Athabasca, crossing the Sun-wapta near its mouth, and forded the eastern branch of the Athabasca where the river forks. We followed up the western smaller fork, and named it Chaba river, in honour of Job Beaver, an enterprising Stony whose lodge-poles we found in the valley. The name is doubly appropriate, since beavers, though now apparently ex- tinct in the region, were once numerous, as shown by their extensive dams. There are so many Beaver creeks or rivers in north-western Canada that we chose the Stony word, Chaba or Chahba. Fortress lake, which is 8 miles long by 1 or 2 wide, has waters of pale turquoise blue, fed by a few glacier torrents, and reflects the bare purplish cliffs, the flanks clothed with splendid unburnt ever- green forest, and the glacier-covered summits of some of the finest mountains to be found in the Rockies. The lake has a curious sub- terranean outlet into a tributary of the Chaba river, but sends most of its water into Wood river, an important affluent of the Columbia; so that, like the Committee’s Punchbowl, it sends its waters to the Pacific * In the Am, Geol., Jan. 1894, Mount St. Elias is given a height of 18,015 feet, Orizaba that of 18,315°8 feet. In the number for April, 1894, Mount Logan is repre- sented as 19,514 feet high, far surpassing any other point of North America. i « 60 MOUNT BROWN AND THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA, as well as the Arctic oceans. The lake stands 4330 feet above the sea, and forms the summit of a pass 1400 feet lower than the Athabasca pass 10 or 12 miles to the west, 950 feet lower than the Kicking Horse pass followed by the Canadian Pacific Railway, and 610 feet higher than the Yellowhead pass. The valley of Fortress lake, belonging as it does to the British Columbian side of the Rockies, shows a richer vegetation than other valleys we had visited. White and black spruce grow to an immense height. A trunk stranded on the shore was 60 feet long, nearly 2 feet thick at the smaller end, and had not yet branched. A few pines grow along the shore, and aspens, balsam poplars, and willows grow on the plain at the head of the lake. The giant cedar and the prickly “ devil’s club,” characteristic growths of British Columbia, occur very sparingly. White winter-green and half a dozen other berry-bearing plants thrive in marshy places of the valley, while the rhododendron and the three Rocky Mountain heathers cover wide stretches of the mountain sides. Avalanche tracks, from which the big trees have been swept, grow up with gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, and make favourite haunts of the bears. Our return route was practically the same as the one followed in coming out, though the Saskatchewan was now fordable, saving us a détour at the Kootenay plains. Apparently no Indians crossed the great river that summer, since we found no traces of them, and but one white man beside ourselves, a prospector named McGavan, whom we ferried over on our way out. The mountains through which we travelled may be said to have no human inhabitants, though a few families of Stonies hunt the sheep there now and then, To sum up the topography of the Rockies between the Saskatchewan and the Athabasca in a few sentences, we may describe the eastern side of the Rockies as consisting of a series of more or less steeply tilted blocks facing north-east in precipitous escarpments, and having gentler slopes following the dip of the strata toward the Pacific. They rise to a height of 8000 or 9000 feet toward the east, and 2000 or 3000 feet higher toward the watershed. They are evidently the result of tremendous reversed faults, like those described by McConnell from Bow pass.* Somewhat rarely these faults are replaced by sharp folds, e.g. Sentinel mount in the Kootenay plains. Eighty parallel ridges result from these faults along the Brazeau, but the number varies in other parts. Running north-west and south-east between these parallel ranges we find a somewhat regular series of longitudinal valleys, generally occupied by creeks tributary to the main rivers, while the latter have cut for themselves larger, less regular, transverse valleys approximately at right sill to the others. * “Geol. Sur. Cam,’ 1886, vol. ii. D. @ Os THE WESTLAND ALPS, NEW ZEALAND. 61 At the watershed, on the other hand, we find groups of less regularly disposed mountains, sometimes consisting of nearly horizontal strata and of cathedral shape, rising in their highest summits perhaps above 13,000 feet. The rivers and lakes of this portion of the mountains have not the regularity of direction found in the eastern ranges, The rocks of the region, so far as can be determined from fossils collected in 1892 and 93, are of Devonian age, and consist of limestones, shales, and slates, underlaid by thick beds of quartzitic sandstones and conglomerates. The time of elevation is post-Cretacious, since Laramic rocks occur in some of the valleys, as near Brazeau lake, and Cretaceous rocks may be observed tilted into foothills near the Brazeau gap. Distances were determined by pedometer or dead reckoning, checked by frequent Jatitude observations ; heights by means of three aneroids and a boiling-point apparatus, the height of the Athabasca at the mouth of the Miette, which was determined years ago in railway surveys, serving as a check. The readings were compared with sea-level barometer readings for the region, kindly supplied by Mr. Stupart, of the Meteorological Service of Canada. It is believed that the heights determined are not more than 100 or 200 feet astray. The accompanying carefully executed map is the work of Mr. Stewart. THE WESTLAND ALPS, NEW ZEALAND. From November, 1893, till May, 1894, Messrs. C. E. Douglas and A. P. Harper, explorers in the service of the Department of Lands and Survey, New Zealand, were engaged in a reconnaissance survey of the Upper Waiho country, including the hitherto untouched Franz Josef glacier. Their reports and maps appear amongst the appendices to the Survey Report for the current year. Bad weather and the unfavourable condition of the ice rendered it impossible for the explorers to reach the upper névé and ice-fields, but a route to the glacier was “ blazed,” and the glacier itself examined as far as was practicable. The road-line, river, and terminal face were traversed with chain and compass, and the rest surveyed by a “ compass ray-trace,” heights being ascertained by the use of two aneroids, and positions checked by reference to known points of the Trigonometrical Survey. So far as the river is concerned, the Waiho seems to differ little from others in Westland. The scenery is, as elsewhere, magnificent ; but there is the same story of the gradual extinction of the native birds. Kiwis and maori-hens grow fewer in number every year, and many of those left fail to mate during the breeding-season. Mr. Douglas attributes the scarcity to cats, run wild from deserted diggings, more than to dogs, Norwegian rats, or even stoats, who usually have to share the blame amongst themselves. . ; ins ve 62 THE WESTLAND ALPS, NEW ZEALAND. Variety as well as number is extremely limited: two grey ducks, a pair of blue ducks with five young ones, a solitary shag, and one old gull represented aquatic bird-life. In the bush were found kakas, pigeons, kiwis, hens, crows, storm-birds, and canaries; but, curiously enough, no tom-tits, only one robin, and very few mountain wrens, Numerous spiders were found on the ice, and in the pools, three miles up the glacier, a short but extremely active insect of a species unknown to the explorers. Off the ice, the insect world was represented only by mosquitoes. The valley of the Waiho is no exception to the Westland rule as regards the absence of marketable timber. The useful forests are on the flats and broken morainic hills near the sea. In the ranges, and all along the face of the outer hills, totaras, pines, and cedars only occur here and there, and the whole mountain forest is kamahi bush, with a few ratas and inos, ribbon-wood in patches, and the usual underscrub of geige, supplejack, lawyers, and pepper-tree. The geige disappears at an elevation of about 500 feet; supplejack ranges from 800 to 1500 feet. At about 3000 feet the mountain scrub begins, composed of akeake, black scrub, grass-tree, and pepper-tree, besides various kinds of heath, amongst which Mr. Douglas specially mentions the pineapple-topped neinei, with its curious foliage and habit of growth, as a shrub worth introducing in England. On the spurs in the highest places reached were found lilies, anemones, edelweiss, violets, flowering heath, and other alpine plants. One specimen of edelweiss was found as low down as 800 feet ; but it appeared to be dwarfed and stunted in growth. The form and general position of the Franz Josef glacier are best seen from Fig. 3, a reproduction of one of Mr. Harper’s photographs. The view is taken looking up the glacier from a point on its left bank, on the Moltke range, 4000 feet above sea-level; and the mountain scrub in the foreground, with a neinei tree to the left, are worth noticing. The Moltke range, with steep or precipitous cliffs extending down to the glacier, passes up into the Kaiser Fritz range behind it, from which two tributary glaciers, the Blumenthal and the Melchior, flow into the Franz Josef. Beyond the Melchior is the south side of the immense névé, which is much broken up, forming really a tributary glacier, and on that account named the Agassiz. The main ice-stream comes from the other side of the great basin, more to the left of the photograph. The basin is surrounded by lofty peaks; Bismarck’s Peak between the Melchior and the Agassiz; a hitherto unnamed summit, now called Conway’s Peak, at the other end of the range separating the Agassiz from the Fox glacier; Mount Spencer; Mount Jervois at the head of the Tusk, a ridge which separates the Agassiz from the principal stream coming from Graham’s Saddle, and other saddles leading over to the Tasman, between Mount Jervois and Mount de la Béche. On the right side of the stream (the left of the figure), the Franz Josef receives THE WESTLAND ALPS, NEW ZEALAND. 63 the Almer glacier from the Baird range; and, somewhat further down, the small Carrel glacier from the same source, the latter, however, apparently entering as a beck through a narrow gorge. The Franz Josef glacier terminates at Sentinel Rock, in lat. 43° 25’ 30” S., long. 170° 10’ 58” E.; height above sea-level, 692 feet. The total area of the glacier is estimated at 8-4 square miles, and of the watershed at 27'4 square miles, of which 5:9 are forest, 0°8 grass, 2°8 barren river- bed and rock, and 17-9 snowfields and ice. The surface-length of the glacier is 8-7 miles, and its mean width 0°53 miles, the horizontal length 84 miles, and total fall 8928 feet. The mean direction of flow is Balfour Valley and Glacier Elie de B Glacier Peak Hardinger Victoria Glacier —_——j Fox Glacier névé ——_—j Ryan's Range . | FIG. 1—GENERAL VIEW OF THE WESTLAND ALPS, N. 41° W.; ratio of trunk to névé, 1 to 5, and of moraine to clear ice, 1 to 52. As appears from Fig. 1, the bed of the glacier presents steep, rocky sides of very uniform outline, the only important irregularity being Cape Defiance, on the left side (visible in the photograph), which juts out into the stream and encloses one of the two moraines which cover any extent of surface. Cape Defiance is in many ways the centre of geographical interest. Immediately above it is the Unser Fritz waterfall, the great feature of the region, with its small glacier and enormous precipices on either side. This fall is described as magnificent, especially after rain; under ordinary circumstances, its great height (1209 feet) dwarfs the apparent volume of water. A short distance above Cape Defiance the most important geological features are also, in all probability, to be found. The explorers did not succeed in getting ashore much above this point; but the moraine above Cape Defiance contains a sprinkling of Torlesse slates, of which the medial moraine is exclusively composed, indicating the beginning of the transition from the schists, out of which the valley of the Waiho has been eroded. It 3 = ‘ ae 64 THE WESTLAND ALPS, NEW ZEALAND. may be mentioned that the dip and strike of the rocks are the same here as all over the country—north-north-east, with a dip east. Gneiss shows up at the Sentinel and Terminal rocks ; elsewhere, only schist, and nowhere traces of dykes—only a few veins of quartz not worth noticing. As might be expected, the exploration of a glacier which falls 8928 feet in 84 miles was no easy matter. Such a descent would produce rough and rotten ice on a glacier having an elevation much greater than that of the Franz Josef, even with a less temperate climate at and a greater distance from the sea. It was evident from the first that it was FIG. 2.—RANGES FROM COOK RIVER-BED. hopeless to find a route straight up the glacier, for about a mile above the terminal face was a small ice-fall, consisting of ponderous broken ice, caused by huge longitudinal and latitudinal crevasses. An attempt along the south side failed, owing to the ice being lined by ice-worn precipices of 100 feet and more, fringed with scrub and bush growing on almost precipitous hill-sides, and the ice was very broken and unsafe for some distance from the sides. Only five times during the whole course of their work did the explorers find a practicable route through this rotten ice at the sides, and the nature of these may be gathered from the fact that in one of them it took an hour and three-quarters of hard ice-work to make good 300 yards. Finally, the north side of the glacier was attacked, and there the difficulties were found, at first at least, to be less formidable. Some distance up the glacier ice-worn = 4 eli 2 1c | a | & $ THE WESTLAND ALPS, NEW ZEALAND. 65 cliffs about 100 feet high were again met with, and a number of small creeks, notably Arch creek, a deep gut between the bluff on one side and a conical rock—the “‘ Eye-tooth ”—on the other, in which a face of ice 200 feet high is exposed. Above Rope creek, a bluff of some 50 feet, the ice was skirted for about half a mile, and a route was found on to the glacier above the ice-fall—only, however, after six vain attempts. Thence a crossing was effected to a point above Cape Defiance, where the explorers encamped for some days. An attempt was then made to force the great ice-falls, which Mr. Harper describes as second only to the Haast, on the Tasman glacier. The ice was less broken on the north Pe FIG. 3.—VIEW OVERLOOKING FRANZ JOSEF GLACIER FROM 4000 FEET. side, the crevasses and seracs being smaller near the influx of the Alma glacier, and it was hoped that two days’ work would suffice to gain the head of the glacier. Unfortunately, a stretch of 200 yards on the lower névé was found altogether impracticable, and the party was forced to return, although all the remaining distance seemed comparatively easy. Mr. Harper is of opinion that experienced climbers would find little difficulty in reaching the upper névé during the winter season. The main range must always be difficult climbing, owing to the pre- dominance of bad rock, but Mr. Harper believes that Mounts Spencer and Jervois, and the saddles between them, would be easier from the Franz Josef side than from the Tasman, once the névé were gained. The movements of the Franz Josef glacier are necessarily extremely active. Crackings are felt and heard frequently, and two or three days No. I—Janvary, 1895,] F 2 66 THE WESTLAND ALPS, NEW ZEALAND. are sufficient to produce serious changes on the surface of the ice. The changes near the terminal face are immense, as is only natural so near the level of the sea. The level of the top of the ice at the face fell about 70 feet by simply melting between November 1 and the end of January, and the retreat during that time was in some places over 130 feet at the terminal face, while along the sides the rocks were in some places exposed as much as 50 feet. Until winter observations, which we under- stand have since been made by Mr. Harper, finally dispose of the matter, it is impossible to say whether the glacier is retreating or not. From sketches made twenty years ago from the flats, it would seem that there is a slight annual retreat ; but most of the evidence tends to show a great winter advance quite equal to the summer retreat. Approximate obser- vations of the motion of the glacier were made with the prismatic com- pass on two cross-lines, one above Cape Defiance, and another about halfway between it and the terminal face. The results are certainly astonishing. Line L. (176 yards from side) ... ... 153°3 inches per day. 200°0 4. 2070 5. see 6. (132 yards from side) . Line II. 1. (15 yards from rock) ... 5-0 ‘i 2. ae 30°0 ‘ 3. 13275, 4. 1020S, 5. 6. Line L. is just below the great ice-fall and above a steep decline in the glacier ; Line II. above a small ice-fall. As already mentioned, there is very little moraine either on the surface or along the sides. The surface of the glacier is, contrary to the general New Zealand rule, practically clear of débris, with the exception of a narrow strip along the south side, coming from the rocks imme- diately below the influx of the Blumenthal glacier. This accumulates to some extent in the bend above Cape Defiance, and is continued to the only large piece of surface moraine, which is situated almost opposite Arch creek, and was probably caused by a slip which must have come down within the last two years. Mr. Douglas speaks with great emphasis of the importance of observing the future movements of this slip, which, according to the data given above, ought to reach the terminal face during the present spring, and to disfigure the snout of the glacier for some years to come with stones and dirty ice. Mr. Douglas believes that a large terminal moraine will be formed at the present terminal face, similar to one already existing somewhat lower down, or else a new lateral moraine, which may cause the old one to be attacked. In the latter case, data will probably be obtained by which to fix the age of : | i : i | j | = THE WESTLAND ALPS, NEW ZEALAND. 67 large moraine several miles further down the valley. In valleys con- taining large glaciers, four tiers of old ice-lines are always found; but in the Franz Josef no certain remains of No. 4 terrace have been identified, and Mr. Douglas concludes that, although at present the largest, it was during the great Ice period of only second or third rate importance, far eclipsed by Cvuok’s glacier and the Karangarua, The moraines of the Franz Josef are composed of a larger proportion of Torlesse slates according as they come from points higher up the valley, and these points may have been determined by the possibility of slips ocourring like that which came down two years ago. ‘I'he older moraine FIG. 4.—LOOKING UP FOX GLACIER. probably came from between Unser Fritz waterfalls and the Blumenthal at the time the glacier was at the level of No. 2 terrace. After completing the Franz Joseph glacier, Messrs. Douglas and Harper explored the Balfour glacier, from which the middle branch of the Cook river flows; and partially mapped and explored the Fox glacier, the source of another branch of the same river. The main branch of the Cook, with the La Perouse glacier at its head, was also partly surveyed ; but, owing to early snow coming on in April, the work had to be left incomplete. The Fox glacier (Fig. 4), like the Franz Josef, descends to within 700 feet above the sea, and is 12 miles from the beach. Previous sketches taken from low-level stations were found to be incorrect, in so far as the Victoria glacier does not join the main ice-stream at all, but lies in a valley of its own. The general configuration is made clear by F2 68 ¢ THE GLACIAL LAND-FORMS OF THE MARGINS OF THE ALPS. Fig. 1. All the peaks and chief spurs of the main range have been fixed with reference to points of the Trigonometrical Survey, and the explorers are now completing the details of the general reconnaissance survey, on which Mr. Douglas has been engaged for several years. The surface of the country as a whole is extremely broken, and up to a height of 3500 feet the ground is covered with almost impenetrable forest and scrub, necessitating the cutting of tracks up the river-gorges. The difficulties of the work are greatly increased by the excessive rainfall, which often cuts the explorers off from supplies. ‘Ihe bush, however, usually provides birds in sufficient numbers, and it is only necessary to carry oatmeal, tea, sugar, and such necessaries. In the absence of guides and porters, the camp is restricted to the lightest possible articles, usually only a “fly” to sleep under, which can be supplemented by a shelter of scrubs and ferns in bad weather. THE GLACIAL LAND-FORMS OF THE MARGINS OF THE ALPS. By HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. At the close of the sixth meeting of the International Geological Congress, which was held at Zurich during August and September, an excursion occupying a week was arranged in order to afford an opportunity of examining the remains of ancient ice-action far beyond the reach of actual glaciers on both the southern and northern slopes of the Alps. ‘This trip was planned and directed by Professors Penck and Briickner and Dr. Du Pasquier, who, from their previous knowledge of the localities to be visited, had drawn up a guide in the form of a pamphlet of 86 pages, entitled ‘Le Systéme glaciaire des Alpes,’ which is published in voi. 22 of the Bulletin of the Neuchatel Society of Natural Sciences. The special object was to exhibit the part played in the formation of the land surfaces at the base of the Alps by the moraines or glacial formations, strictly so called, of the great Ice Ages, and also of the inter- mediate fluvio-glacial deposits of moraine material which had been rearranged by water on the retreat of the ice. ‘To these was added involuntarily, rather too much experience of the “ pluvio-glacial ” con- ditions which several days of steady rain at the beginning and at the end of the excursion induced on the steep surfaces of the clay slopes over which Professor Penck led his followers. The main point of interest to the glacial geologist was the proof afforded by the sections of the occurrence of at least three successive periods of great glaciation, separated by relatively long intervals, during which the vast volumes of water liberated by the melting ice dispersed and rearranged the moraine material. ‘T'o a geographer the i { | ‘ Be H { i + | ‘ } t THE GLACIAL LAND-FORMS OF THE MARGINS OF THE ALPS. 69 interest centred rather in seeing how the scenery and structure of great stretches of country were determined by the heaping up upon the plains of extensive systems of low hills—low, that is, when compared with the Alps, for some of them exceed a thousand feet in height— differing entirely from the mountains of elevation lying beyond them. These hills and fluvio-glacial plateaus represent the amount of glacial erosion and transport; they are the rubbish heaps of the mountain sculpture. Their effect on the broad geographical features of the alpine border is very clear in determining the lines of communication. The amount of weathering they have undergone, according to the different ages of the deposits, decides the character of the soil, which in turn reacts on the vegetation and appeals directly to the eye, the general aspect of the landscapes of the first glaciation differing in a marked degree from those of the last. Unfortunately, the weather was throughout unsatisfactory for photography, and the attempts made to take comprehensive views were failures, as had been expected. Some fair results were, however, obtained in detailed sections, which are of geological rather than geographical interest. The excursionists met at Lugano on Monday, September 17, when thirty-seven members assembled, including representatives of Austria- Hungary, Germany, France, Russia, Norway, Holland, Switzerland, Italy, the United States, England, and Scotland. The weather was hopelessly wet, the one interesting result of which was to throw into the shade the distinguishing peculiarities of the Italian lakes, and reveal the essential similarity of their scenery to that of the English lakes and Scottish lochs. Professor Penck explained, and in some cases subse- quently demonstrated, that the lower ends of the North Italian lakes were dammed by glacial accumulations, thus raising their level far above the rim of the rock-basins which contain their deeper water, and accuunting for such peculiarities as the “ recurved hook” of Lugano. A somewhat exciting boat-trip down the rapid Ticino landed the geologists at a fine section where the river had cut deeply through its moraine bar. Here, so far as sky or soil or vegetation were concerned, one might have been in Scotland instead of Italy. The steep boulder- clay slope, grown in part with the common coltsfoot, when ascended, led to a level moorland, the poor soil of which was covered with heather, not shrubby as in more northern latitudes, but composed of long separate flower-stems with exceptionally large heads of blossom. In the distance sombre pine woods crowned the hillocks, but at a turn of the path maize and sorghum were found as common field-crops, and the similarity to northern lands disappeared. On Monday evening the party reached Ivrea by steam tramway from Santhia, and the whole of ‘Tuesday was occupied in seeing, as well as the mist would allow, the vast glacial amphitheatre which surrounds the town, and in crossing the steep ridge of the Serra and the ferretto- 5 3 ; 70 THE GLACIAL LAND-FORMS OF THE MARGINS OF THE ALPS. covered slopes of moorland which succeed it to Biella, whence Milan was reached not long before midnight. The morainic amphitheatre is both the largest and most typical of the southern slopes of the Alps. Two ramparts of moraine material diverge nearly at right angles from the mouth of the narrow valley of the Dora Baltea, gradually diminishing in height, and these are finally united by an arc of moraines convex to the south, so that the whole completely surrounds a central plain, the two little lakes occupying the centre of which overflow by the Doire, which cuts across the southern barrier. The eastern side of the amphitheatre includes the largest moraine hill of the system, so large that it by no means belies its name of the Serra. It is a ridge more than 12 miles long, and in its highest part more than 1300 feet above the bottom of the depres- sion, towards which the sides slope at an angle of 20°. The accumula- tion is the result of several glaciations, the moraine externe, or early boulder-clay, being covered with a red weathered crust of ferretto, the intercalation of which between the older and newer moraines is one of the proofs of the occurrence of an interglacial period. A railway journey next morning allowed a fine forenoon to be spent in driving from Lonato to Salo, on the Garda lake, through moraines and fluvio-glacial formations—some of them compact conglomerates. Here the successive glaciations were very clearly shown in several sections, the lower moraine of the earlier Ice Age having its pebbles much weathered; in some cases even the granites had crumbled into clay, retaining only their original form. Above this came a layer of conglomerate formed of ice-scratched pebbles stratified by running water, and on the top a fresher boulder-clay much less weathered than that below. Coming up the Garda lake at night, the contrast between physical and political geography was finely shown by the uniform cliff walls and continuous water-surface broken by the long beam of the electric search-light at the Italian frontier station, which swept the lake all night for the prevention of smuggling. On Thursday, September 20, the excursion left Riva by rail at 6.20, and had an excellent opportunity, on the journey to the Brenner line at Mori, of seeing that ice is not the only agent which is capable of producing scenery by the accumulation of detritus. The landslip- covered plateau of Loppo, with its lake formed in a hollow of the dolomitic detritus, and the still more extensive piles of landslip material about Mori, contrasted and compared in many ways with the glacial phenomena seen farther south. The Austrian Railway Company had provided, free of charge, an observation car at the end of the train, from which a good view was obtained of the deltaic wilderness through which the lateral tributaries entered the Adige, and of the extraordinary fertility of the alluvial flats, where maize and vines in alternate narrow : a i str go th m¢ | be 3 | m | ; { to w : : 8] a a I I i ( ( ‘ | : THE GLACIAL LAND-FORMS OF THE MARGINS OF THE ALPS. 71 strips covered almost all the available land. Later the porphyrite gorges marked the passage across the centre of the range, and beyond the Brenner saddle carriages were provided at Matrei to allow of a more detailed examination of the terraces of the Sill valley than would be possible from the train. The vastness of this accumulation of moraine, fluvio-glacial deposit, and moraine again, may be judged from the fact that it fills the ancient valley of the Sill, and that the modern river had to cut down through more than 300 feet of it before coming to the underlying rock, into which the river-bed has now worn its way to some depth. As the road winds along the face of the steep slope of the clay gorge, it affords a view of the railway on the opposite side far below, cut in the hard rocks close to the river, while the slope above is so unstable that it remains in many places bare of vegetation, and wattled fences have been run along in zigzags to bind the clay and reduce the risk of damage to the roadway by sudden falls. In the moraine material the action of sub-aerial denudation has produced a number of “fairy chimneys,” the Erdpyramiden, or earth-pillars, with . which the name of Tyrol is usually associated in elementary text-books of geology ; but they are neither so large nor so picturesque as those of the Finsterbach, the view of which so well repays the labour of the arduous climb from Botzen to the Ritten plateau. Two nights were spent at Innsbruck, and the whole of Friday the 21st was devoted to the study of the sections along the mountain slope of the left side of the Inn. Here the interglacial deposits were seen in their most impressive form. A steep climb along a clay slope of unques- tionable moraine, crowded with highly polished and striated pebbles, showed an overhanging cornice of compact breccia resting on the moraine, and itself a hardened water-bedded deposit. Mayr’s great quarry in this reddish breccia is a prominent object as seen from Innsbruck, and has supplied a great part of the stone which, from its hardness and durability, causes the newer streets of that town to recall the clear-cut buildings of Aberdeen. Above Mayr’s quarry comes a nearly level plateau—the top of the terrace of accumulation—1000 feet above the flat floor of the valley, and similar in its features to the terrace of the Wippthal, through which the Sill cuts its way, as seen from Schénberg. As the quarry is carried further back the loose material above the hard breccia is cleared away in advance, and so a series of excellent sections of the upper moraine is exposed. The intercalation of this mass of breccia, several hundred feet thick, is a proof of the comparatively long duration of the interglacial period in which, according to Penck, it was formed as a talus or scree on the shores of the ancient Inn lake. The remarkable terrace which breaks the steep slope of the moun- tains on both sides of the Inn valley is only found between the Oetzthal and the Zillerthal, from each of which glacial accumulations had blocked the main valley, thus giving origin to a lake which, invading the lower = 4 | i x | . Starnberg; but the weather proved so unfavourable that, fur the first time 72 THE GLACIAL LAND-FORMS OF THE MARGINS OF THE ALPS. Wippthal also, allowed the interglacial deposits to form on its margins, which are now represented by the top of the lateral terrace. From Innsbruck the excursion proceeded by rail along the Inn valley into Bavaria, then by a branch line across the glacial amphitheatre of the Inn, and the monotonous plain south of Munich to Deisenhofen, whence the Isar was reached on foot. The contrast of the uniform levels and low moraine hills of this northern slope, with their ranges of rather dwarfish pines in monotonous plantations, was sharp when compared with the more abrupt slopes and richer vegetation of the southern side, The true plateau character of this country appeared when, after a walk of several miles along a straight and absolutely level road, a break in the line of trees in front showed the swift Isar flowing almost at our feet, and a steep path descending the gorge to its shore. Crossing the river we reached Hillriegelskreut, and saw a succession of sections demonstrating the triple glaciation and intermediate genial periods. Next day a trip was made from Munich to the Wiirmsee, or Lake of on the excursion, the full programme for the day as planned by the leaders could not be carried out. It was possible, however, to visit a remarkable surface of interglacial conglomerate at Berg, which has been enclosed and placed under cover by the German and Austrian Alpine Club, a body which has rendered inestimable services to the scientific visitor, as well as the tourist and climber, along the whole line of the Eastern Alps. This surface is so strongly glaciated that the rock is polished as if by a lapidary, and the internal structure of every con- stituent pebble is clearly seen. The characteristic strie are there, show- ing how the glacier, long since shrunk back to the obscurity of the cen- tral Alpine ridge, had advanced over the hardened mass of cemented pebbles sorted out by water from an earlier moraine, and cut by its intense erosive power through pebbles and matrix alike. The Wiirmsee is deeper below the general level of the plain than the surrounding hills are high above the surface, and it is entirely surrounded by the inter- glacial deposits known as Deckenschotter, in which it seems probable that the whole basin was eroded beneath the pressure of the last great ice- sheet. In concluding this short account of a delightful and memorable excursion, it may be of advantage to define the nomenclature and sum- marize the general theoretical conclusions arrived at by Drs. Penck, Briickner, and Du Pasquier. Glacial deposits, so far as they occur in the Alps, are divided into two classes—the glacial, or moraines properly so called ; and the fluvio-glacial, or alluvia formed by the action of running water on moraines. The latter are usually clearly stratified, but contain many pebbles marked by glacial strie. Fluvio-glacial deposits are always being formed on the outer slopes of moraines, forming a gentle slope leading from the edge of 4 8 8 P { i ii | : { : } a if : SURVEY OF THE MACCLESFIELD BANK, SOUTH CHINA SEAS. 73 of the morainic amphitheatre to the plain of the enclosed depression. A complex of glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits of contemporaneous origin corresponds to each phase of the cessation of glaciation. Thus in a single glacial series there may be a succession of complexes, one partially superimposed on another, and each corresponding to a definite stage of retreat or advance of the ice. ‘The fluvio-glacial deposits in a single glaciation are spoken of as inter-stadiary. Under the deposits of relatively recent glacial accumulation which are characterized by trifling superficial alteration due to weathering, two other glacial series are found, distinguished from each other and from the most recent series by highly weathered layers or by evidence of great erosion, showing the existence of a long sub-aérial period between each epoch of glaciation. ‘These periods are termed interglacial in dis- tinction to the brief interstadiary periods which occur in the course of a single glaciation. Amongst the interglacial deposits of the neighbour- hood of the Alps, at least on the north of the chain, loess must be included. Lehm is a product of alteration of loess, mainly distinguished by the absence of carbonate of lime. The more ancient moraines are often weathered externally into a brick-red crust, termed ferretto by the Italian geologists. ‘The moraines so coated always occupy the outer side of morainic amphitheatres, and are therefore called external moraines in distinction to the more recent internal moraines, which form the inner slopes and in part rest upon the more ancient. ‘This is not a mere case of superposition, but of actual enclosure, the external moraine extending around as well as partially under the internal. The alluvia of the most ancient glaciation are termed plateau alluvia (Deckenschotter), those of the intermediate glacia- tion high-terrace alluvia (Hochterrassenschotter), and those of the most recent stage low-terrace alluvia (Niederterrassenschotter). I cannot conclude without an expression of gratitude to Professor Penck, for his great kindness and tireless patience in not only showing, but making sure that every member of the excursion saw and under- stood the various features which he explained. SURVEY OF THE MACCLESFIELD BANK, SOUTH CHINA SEAS. Tue ‘ Report on the Results of Dredgings on the Macclesfield Bank,’ by P. W. Bassett-Smith, surgeon k.N., which has recently been issued by the Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty, contains valuable material for discussion in connection with coral reefs. The Macclesfield Bank lies in the centre of the South China Sea, halfway between the northern part of the island of Luzon and the'coast of Annam, and due south of Hong Kong. Earlier surveys showed that it rises rapidly out of deep water, has a length of about 80 miles, and a breadth of 39 miles, and ‘ 4 fi | int ; > 74 SURVEY OF THE MACCLESFIELD BANK, SOUTH CHINA SEAS. that the general depth over the greater part of the area is about 40 fathoms, with indications of a shallow rim round the edge, charac- teristic of a submerged atoll. Frequent reports of shoal water made by ships crossing the bank showed the need for an accurate survey, and the results of a day’s dredging by Mr. Bassett-Smith on board H.M.S. Rambler indicated the importance of a scientific investigation of the coral. On April 23, 1888, the Rambler anchored on the south-west side of the reef, in lat. 15° 28’ N., 113° 51’ E., depth 13 fathoms. Seven hauls of the dredge were made in depths varying from 20 to 44 fathoms, and upon these Mr. Bassett-Smith reports: “ The result of the day's work impressed upon me that life on the Macclesfield Bank was very active, it being very far from the condition of a drowned atoll. . . The surface of the Macclesfield Bank appears to shelve slowly down to 50 fathoms ; here the rapid drop occurs. . . . Living coral was brought up by the dredge every time, but these deep-water corals were quite different from those obtained on the Tizard Bank, except one madrepora in 26 fathoms. There were two chief kinds—one, a compound coral in the shape of thin cups; the other, a branching, very porous coral, with . large black polyps in deep cups, both entirely unable to stand any great surf action. . . . The most active growth of living coral was found on the slope down to 27 fathoms upon the ‘ Dead Coral Rock,’ and from this depth the proportion of dead coral rock progressively increased down to 44 fathoms.” H.M. surveying-vessel Penguin was accordingly despatched to ex- amine the bank in April, 1892, and the western half of the reef was surveyed, immense numbers of zoological specimens being collected. Reef-building corals were absent in only seven hauls of the dredge (excluding those over 50 fathoms), and six of these were on the inner side of the shallow rim, where the bottom was sandy, only one being on rock and sand outside the rim. Thirty-eight genera of corals were obtained, and probably many ordinary varieties are present which could not be brought up with the means at hand. The temperature of the surface water ranged from 79° to 85° Fahr., and that at the bottom of the lagvon was 76°9° Fahr. ‘I'he tow-net showed that minute organisms were abundant. The currents over the bank were strong, and the water exceptionally clear—ull favourable conditions for active growth. Mr. Bassett-Smith’s observations at depths greater than 20 fathoms are of special interest. We extract the fullowing: “From the patches of 10 to 20 fathoms, where the most abundant and most massive branching forms of corals were obtained, one passed down slopes more or less gentle to an average depth of 40 fathoms; this was either covered with sand, where no corals grew, or only psammocera, anacropora, and lepto- seris, all small; or a rough bottom composed of, to a very large extent, 4 rotten calcareous rock, formed by alge in situ . . . ; below this the surface was covered with ‘coral sands,’ turning into muds the deeper one so fe : . } } : } { ae THE MONTHLY RECORD. 75 went. ... The amount of solid rock formed by vegetable organisms on this reef is, I am sure, very large; and as it was most abundant between 20 and 50 fathoms, its building-up power in such reefs as this must be a very important factor.” The other half of the work of survey was completed by H.M. survey- ing-ship Egeria in April and May, 1893, and Mr. Bassett-Smith was transferred from the Penguin for the time. The results of the previous year’s observations were fully confirmed, and many interesting details added. Characteristic sections of the slopes on different parts of the bank were made, two of which are reproduced in the report. On the north side the slope is gradual for at least 10 miles; on the eastern slope 300 fathoms is reached only 1 mile from the shore, and on the southern side at a similar distance, both these sides being practically precipitous. A very significant feature was the number of heads of actively growing coral rising up out of the deep water of the lagoon—often nearer to the surface than the rim—the lagoon itself being a sandy flat with an average depth of 45 fathoms, on which only a few simple corals were found. The net result seems to be, as Mr. Bassett-Smith states, that there is no reason to doubt that the actual increase of solid calcareous rock from these marine organisms requires a much less narrow limit of depth than is usually assigned to them. Growing coral is found in depths of 30 to 40 fathoms, and along with it large quantities of rock formed by calcareous alge in situ. The living algw may also assist in protecting the rock underneath them from the solvent action of sea-water. It is noteworthy that very few alge are found on the lagoon flat. Taken along with the conclusion, based chiefly on the hydrographic observations, that there is no evidence of a vertical movement of the bank as a whole, Mr. Bassett-Smith’s reports afford valuable help in accounting for the depths of such lagoons, and strong support to Murray’s theory of the formation of atolls. We are glad to learn that the extensive zoological collections, by no means confined to corals, have been sent to the British Museum for exhaustive examination. THE MONTHLY RECORD. THE SsocieETY. Reception by the President.—On the afternoon of December 12, the President and Mrs. Markham held a reception in the Society’s rooms, Savile Row, the object being to give the Fellows an opportunity of inspecting the extensive alterations which have been made in the Society’s premises. About 650 Fellows and their friends attended the reception, which was in all respects successful. Antarctic Exploration.—At the meeting of the Society on December 10, 1894, the President, Mr. Clements Markham, made the following remarks: When, just a year ago, Dr. John Murray of the Challenger : Bly 4 ik 76 THE MONTHLY RECORD. read us that inspiriting paper on the renewal of Antarctic research, we all looked upon it as the commencement from which our efforts would begin towards obtaining the dispatch of an Antarctic expedition. It was a very crowded meeting, and great interest was taken in the subject. I therefore feel it my duty now to inform you of what we have done since with that object in view. As soon as we had received the report of our own Antarctic Committee, we addressed ourselves to the Royal Society, and the Council of that illustrious body appointed a committee to report to them on the subject. That committee made its report last May ; a most important report it was, for it not only showed the great value of the scientific results of such an expedition, but also pointed out the practical value of these researches, especially with regard to navigation. 1am glad to say that the Council of the Royal Society fully concurred in the strong view which was taken by the members of their committee. Last Friday, I am also glad to say, the Council of that most influential body the British Association passed a resolution strongly in favour of the work we have taken in hand. We have therefore addressed the other scientific bodies of the empire, and the Agents-General of the Australasian Colonies, and when all our work in that direction is completed, a deputation will be formed to represent the matter to Her Majesty’s Government. I think we have made as much progress as we can expect, and things look very hopeful; but we all ought to put our shoulders to the wheel, for it depends on the view taken by the British public and the press, what conclusion may be arrived at by our Government. The Sixth International Geographical Congress.— The complete programme of the Congress is now ready, and will be shortly issued to the Fellows of the Society, with another appeal from the President, Mr. Markham, for further subscriptions. The expenses connected with the Congress will be very considerable, and, while the Council will be prepared to subscribe a moderate sum, it is hoped that the Fellows of the Society will supplement this liberally, so that the reception given to the many geo,zraphers from all parts of the world may be worthy of the capital of the empire and of the Royal Geographical Society. The Congress will meet on July 26, 1895, and continue till August 3. It is hoped that arrangements may be made to hold the meetings in the Imperial Institute. There will be an Exhibition in connection with the Congress, and this will be of a most comprehensive character. It will probably remain open until the middle of September. Certain im- portant subjects have already been arranged for discussion, and the Organizing Committee are taking every care that the work of the Con- gress will be of wide and present interest. Educational Lectures.—The attention of Fellows is drawn to the fact that Mr. H. J. Mackinder begins the second series of his lectures on the History of Geography and Geographical Discovery, at Gresham College, 3 ! { i | ~ i q : | | : ; = 4 | \ | THE MONTHLY RECORD. 77 on Monday, January 21, at 6 p.m. The special subject of this series will be the Period of the Renaissance and Modern Times. Details of the programme were given in the Journal for September, 1894. To these lectures Fellows are admitted free. EUROPE. The Tarns of the English Lake District.—At a recent meeting of the Geological Society of London, Mr. J. E. Marr, r.n.s., contributed a paper on “ The ‘Yarns of Lakeland,” in which he pointed out that the fact of the outflow from a tarn taking place over solid rock was no proof that the depression was a rock basin. The most striking example brought forward in support of this contention was the tarn known as Small Water, the outlet of which runs over rock, but instead of following the bottom of the valley leading to Haweswater, it flows at first along the side of the valley in a narrow hollow of considerably higher level. A similar instance of a mountain torrent flowing in a narrow bed parallel to and at a higher level than the bottom of the valley to which it ultimately descends, is presented by the stream which passes the Berliner Hiitte in the Zemmgrund, Tyrol, opposite the end of the Horn glacier. In the case of Small Water, the original valley was blocked by moraine material, and the outlet of the tarn at a higher level had cut down to rock, which prevented it from working laterally along the barrier of detritus to the lowest point. ASIA. Mr. Littledale’s Journey to Central Asia.—Mr. St. George Littledale and Mrs. Littledale left England on November 10 for a second journey across Central Asia. On this occasion they intend to cross Tibet from north to south, if possible by a new route. If Mr. Littledale is successful in carrying out his programme, the additions which he will be able to make to*our knowledge of Central Asia will be extensive and striking. Mr. Littledale is well supplied with instruments of all kinds, and is well qualified to use them. Besides Mrs. Littledale, he is accom- panied by his nephew. They expect to be away for at least eighteen months. Dr. Radde’s Journey in the Caucasus.—A preliminary account of Dr. Radde’s journey in 1893, along the eastern shore of the Black Sea and across the Western Caucasus, forms a supplementary number of Petermann’s Mitteilungen, recently issued. This journey formed part of the general plan for the personal investigation of the Caucasus region which Dr. Radde has been carrying out for so many years, the results of which he hopes eventually to publish in a comprehensive work dealing with the physical geography of the whole region. In the account now before us, particular attention is paid to the progress made within the region in question during the thirty years which have elapsed since the author first became acquainted with it, and information of much interest is given as to the present con- dition and prospects of trade, cultivation, etc. The botany of the district is also carefully dealt with in its general outline, the author having undertaken the description of the Caucasus from this point of view for Engler and Drude’s ‘ Vege- tation der Erde.’ Details are given respecting the trade of Batum, and especially the export of petroleum, which has assumed such large proportions within the last few years. Other commodities are exported in much greater quantities from the neighbouring port of Poti, which competes with Batum as the other terminus of the railway. The former place, which has practically come into existence as a port within the last thirty years, exports principally maize, cotton, timber, and manganese ore. It is considered by some to be more likely to repay the expense of harbour works than its rival. Dr. Radde also discusses the question of the success 4 ; i 78 THE MONTHLY RECORD. or otherwise of the attempt made within the last few years to introduce the culti- vation of tea into the district. The soil appears suitable, and the plants have thriven admirably, but it is too early to pronounce upon the quality of the tea, Even should it prove good, the absence of cheap labour will be a hindrance. Owing to its sheltered position, Suchum possesses great advantages for garden cultivation, and there is hardly a second place in the Russian Empire so favourably situated in this respect. The town suffered much from the Turks in 1877. Dr. Radde visited the recently founded monastery of New Athos, and was surprised at the amount of solid work already accomplished. He also passed by the various colonies—consisting of Greeks, Moldavians, Russians, and Germans—in the valley of the Msymta and elsewhere which, though not entirely successful, are deserving of praise considering the obstacles they have had to contend with, amid the wilderness of rank vegetation. The last important place reached on the coast was Novorosseisk, the develop- ment of which, since the opening of the railway made it the outlet for the rich Kuban district, has been enormous. Wheat forms by far the largest export. In his journey across the mountains, Dr. Radde ascertained the precise localities still frequented by the Aurochs, and these he lays down in a special map accompanying the brochure. A Topographical Survey of Goa.—The Indian Survey Department have applied to the Portuguese Government for leave to survey topographically the whole of the territory of Goa during the ensuing cold season. It is anticipated that the survey will not occupy more than one season, and it will be on the scale of one inch to the mile. The Bombay Gazette states that there is no record that any such survey has ever been made by the Goa Government, but we may remark that a detailed map was prepared under the superintendence of Lieut. James Garling, of Madras, in 1814, and was printed on a reduced scale at the Government Photo- zincographic office at Poona in 1877. It is anticipated that the Portuguese authorities will be only too glad to assent to the proposed survey, as it will be of undoubted use to their subjects, the territory having undergone considerable changes during the last eighty years. AFRICA. Count von Gotzen’s Journey across Africa.—A telegram was received in Berliu early in December announcing the arrival of this traveller (see Journal, vol. iv. p. 273) at Matadi, on the Lower Congo, thus completing the journey across the continent from east to west. From Ruanda, where he was last heard of, his route led through the Great Forest and along the Lowa, an eastern tributary of the Congo above Stanley Falls. A letter, dated from Lake Kivu, June 18, 1894, which was published in the Deutches Kolonialblatt for November 1, gives particulars of his explorations in the country west of the Victoria Nyanza, in the neighbourhood of the Ufumbiro mountains and Lake Kivu. He gives the names of five successive peaks, of which the most easterly is called Ufumbiro, after the district in which it lies. The most westerly, named Kirunga cha gongo (“place of sacrifice”), which Count von Gétzen found to be an active volcano, was ascended by him, a way being cut for three days through forest. His provisional calculations make its height 3420 m. (11,220 feet). The crater-walls (nearly 1000 feet high) slope at an angle of 50°, and enclose a space almost a mile in diameter, with two shafts in its level floor, from the northernmost of which issued steam, reflecting a reddish glare. In order to reach this mountain, the river Nyavarongo was twice crossed, and is said by the traveller to be the most important branch of the Kagera. Lake Kivu, which has figured on our maps since Speke’s time, and which discharges the Ruzizi into Lake Tanganyika, stretches southwards from the foot of the volcano. It is not much THE MONTHLY RECORD. 79 smaller than Lake Albert Edward, its south and west shores being invisible from the north point even in clear weather. A heavy surf beats upon the lava blocks on its shores. Its western as well as eastern coast belongs to the king of Ruanda. In the eastern part of this country the traveller passed a second lake, named Mohazi, 35 to 50 miles long, but only 14 to 3 broad. From the recent telegram, it appears that the Lake Ozo of Stanley (which Count von Gétzen was at first inclined to identify with Kivu) proves to be a river, as has so often been the case with reported lakes in Africa. It is quite possible, however, that the “ Lake of Quando” or “Lake Chowambé” of Livingstone, was really Lake Kivu, though the first name occurs elsewhere as a corruption of Uganda, not of Ruanda. Consul C. 8. Smith’s Kilimanjaro Botanical Collection.—The collection of dried plants referred to by Mr. Smith in his account of the Proceedings of the British Commission on the Anglo-German boundary in East Equatorial Africa in 1892, which appears in the Journal for November, 1894, pp. 424-437, was duly presented to Kew; and, although not very extensive, comprising only about 100 species, has proved of considerable interest. ‘These plants have been roughly classified, and the evident novelties described and some of them published ; but, ia the present state of tropical African botany, some time must elapse before all the species can be satisfactorily determined. Very few are weeds of wide distribution, and among those easily recognized of previously described plants are some of un- usual interest. Such, for example, as Vellosia Spekei, previously only collected by Speke and Grant; and Rumex madeirensis, which, as the name indicates, is also a native of Madeira. Specially interesting among the undoubted novelties is a new species of Welwitsch’s genus Sesamothamnus (S. Smithiei, Baker), a singular fleshy, shrubby genus of the Pedalinew, hitherto only known from the western side of the continent in Angola. There is a figure of the original species in the Transactions of the Linnean, Society, xxvii. t. 18. Polycline is a . remarkable new genus of Composit, belonging to the group Anthemidee, and characterized by baving the discoid flower-heads so much elongated as to be in reality an abbreviated spike, each flower being subtended and almost enfolded ina bract. It is named P. psyllioides, and is published in Hooker’s Jcones Plan- tarum, pl. 2293, where a second species (P. gracilis) is described. This was collected by Mr. Joseph Thomson in Masailand. An orchid with a very large flower may prove to be a new genus, but the material is insufficient for description. Mr. Smith also brought home a small collection of living plants, including species of Crinum, Chlorophytum, Albuca, and Hemanthus, and a number of interesting orchids, some of which are probably new. The following have already flowered at Kew: Acampe polyglossa, Angraecum bilobum, var. Kirkii, A. Kotschyi and Cyrtopera flexuosa. Consul C. 8. Smith on Lake Chala.—In the statement with reference to Lake Chala in Mr. C. S. Smith’s paper in the November number of the Journal, on “The Anglo-German Boundary in East Equatorial Africa,” Mr. Smith desires to state that he had no intention of casting any doubt on the observations of Mrs. French Sheldon. Mrs. Sheldon writes that she made the road descending to the lake, and that the pontoon found by Mr. Smith was carried thither by her own porters. Mrs. Sheldon also maintains that her statements about the effervescence of the water and the drawing of her paddles away from the pontoon are quite accurate. Herr Neumann in East Africa—This German zoologist, who has been travelling in East Africa since the end of 1893, paying special regard to the fauna of the country, has already completed some extensive journeys on the shores of the Victoria Nyanza, which may be expected to add to our imperfect knowledge of the | Fi | q inet 80 THE MONTHLY RECORD. countries to the east of the lake (Peterminn’s Mitteilungen, November, 1894), The journey to the lake was made as far as Ngoroine (near its east coast) by a more-northerly route than Dr. Baumann’s—vié Nguruman—visited by Dr. Fischer in 1883. North of Lake Mandara the traveller ascended the peak of Doenyo-Ngai, which, according to the accounts of the Masai, seems to have been in eruption during the present century. Herr Neumann, who has succeeded in defining in many places the line of partition between the east and west African faunas, intends to continue his investigations in Uganda and the neighbourhood of Mount Ruwenzori. British East Africa—Road from Mombasa to Kibwesi.—Capt. Gibb and Lieut. Arthur, who have lately reached the coast from Uganda (Gazette for Zanzibar, etc., November 7, 1894), speak highly of the results of Col. Colville’s administration, both as regards Uganda and Unyoro, in the latter of which the natives were gain- ing confidence in British rule, and settling down to agriculture. An excellent and safe road now connects Kampala with Kibero, on Lake Albert, Nearer the coast, too, a marked improvement was to be noted, and Lieut. Arthur bestows great praise on the road constructed by Mr. George Wilson, for the late Sir William Mackinnon, from Mombasa to Kibwesi,a distance of about 180 miles, which, he says, “ is so good that I would undertake to drive a coach and four along the whole length of it.” The great difficulty in this route is the want of water across the ‘l'aru plain ; but this, it is said, might be easily overcome by lining the natural tanks which exist at Taru with a coating of cement, and so stopping the present rapid percolation of the water. The New Road in Zanzibar Island.—From the Gazette for Zanzibar and East Africa (November 14, 1894) we learn that satisfactory progress is being made with the road under construction by Mr. J. T. Last from Dunga, in the centre of Zanzibar Island, to Chuaka, on its east coast. Gangs of workers were being employed at three different points, Dunga, N’dijani, and Ufufuma, and Mr. Last himself was engaged in laying out the road in parts where this had not yet been done. At Ufufuma, where quarrying had been necessary, the men had succeeded in a short space of time in breaking down and levelling the Gendeli reef, and, this being surmounted, would make rapid progress with the remaining distance towards Chuaka. Mr. Last speaks favourably of the climate of the centre of the island, and recommends Dunga Palace as a savatorium for the townspeople of Zanzibar. Indian and African in Nyasaland.—The advent of the Sikh soldiers into Nyasaland seems already tu have exercised a striking influence on the native inhabitants. According to the British Central Africa Gazette (September 26, 1894), not only have the latter begun to adopt the Sikh style of dress (including boots, turban, trousers, and coats), but a new language has actually come into use, consisting of an extraordinary mixture of Hindustani, Swahili, Yao, aud Chinyanja, which is nevertheless well understood by the people. It bas naturally not yet acquired an extensive vocabulary or definite rules of grammar. Exploration on the Upper Congo and its Tributaries.—The portion of the Upper Congo above Nyaugwe as far as the confluence of the Lukuga, which has hitherto been shown merely as a dotted line on our maps, has lately beeu explored by Mr. Mohun, American Consul on the Congo, accompanied -by Dr. Hinde (Mouvement Géographique, 1894, No. 21). The lake placed here by Livingstone under the name Urenge or Ulenge, and retained on Cameron’s map as Lake Lanji, was found to be non-existent, nor did the traveller hear the name anywhere in the district. For a great part of the distance (from the north) the stream is mostly narrow, and barred by rapids. At one point (named “ Hell Gate” by Mr. Mobun) the width is reduced to 200 yards, and at another still further, to only half this amount. Before the Lukuga, however, the stream expands, and THE MONTHLY RECORD. 81 exhibits the same series of lagoons and pools which is characteristic of its western branch higher up. The whole valley is said to be extremely fertile. The Lukuga was ascended for some distance, but at M’Buli was found to be so obstructed by vegetation as to be impassable. The current was here hardly perceptible, but traces of a considerable rise during the rainy season were observed. Mr. Mohun, who has also furnished maps of Lake Leopold II., the Lukenye, and other tribu- taries of the Congo, has lately returned from Africa. In No. 22 of the same journal extracts are given from the report of M. Le Marinel, dealing with the rapids of the Mobangi, which furnishes more precise details than were previously available as to the amount of obstruction to navigation caused by each series. Most of the lower rapids can be passed by steamers at one season or another, some being easier at high, others at low water; the fall of Mokwangu, however, 13 feet high, arrests progress at all seasons, For details as to the upper course of the river, we are indebted to the members of Van Kerckhoven’s expedition. From the notes of one of these, the late M. Van de Vliet, a sketch map of this portion is given in the same number of the Mouvement. Belgian Exploration between the Welle and Darfur—An important exploration has been effected by M. de la Kéthulle, a Belgian officer who has just returned from Africa, after four years spent in the service of the Congo State (Mouvement Géographique, 1894, No. 25). He accompanied Van Kerckhoven’s Welle expedition, but, being sent north into the Niam Niam countries, he entered into alliance with the powerful chief Rafay (formerly a subordinate of Lupton Bey, according to the Mouvement, though the officer of this name, whose report of a great lake south of the Welle aroused considerable interest some years ago, was said by Lupton to have been killed *), and ascended the Shinko to the north, subsequently pushing across the waterparting to the Ada, or upper course of the Bahr el Arab, in the southern borders of Darfur. Here he was in a country of which, but for the scanty accounts of Dr. Potagos (see Proceedings, 1880, p. 387), and information collected by Barth, Schweinfurth, and Nachtigal, we had previously known nothing. It is, he says, a fine country, and is well peopled. ‘The water- parting, where he crossed it, was well marked by a line of hills. Near the source of the Ada was that of the Kotto, a northern tributary of the Welle, which proves of more importance than had been imagined. The Course of the Omo.—According to the Mouvement Géographique (1894, No, 24), an expedition sent by King Menelik to the countries south-west of Kaffa reports that the Omo flows neither to the east nor to Lake Rudolf, but that below the point reached by the last explorers it makes a bend towards the Nile. It would in this case probably be the upper course of the Sobat, as had been pre- viously held by M. M. d’Abbadie and Wauters. AMERICA. The Alaska Boundary.—The Canadian Alaska Boundary Survey is now complete, and the results may be briefly stated. The boundary-line in question depends upon the Convention of 1825, between Britain and Russia, and may be said to consist of two parts, the eastern which follows the 141st meridian, the southern which separates the “Coast strip” of Alaska from the inland region behind it belonging to Caneda. The first part raises no question except that of the position of the 141st meridian ; the second appears to leave room for discussion between the parties interested, as will appear on inspection of Articles III. and IV. of the original convention (in French), also on reference to some preliminary dis- cussion which took place in Washington in 1888 (see U.S. Senate 50th Cong. 2nd * R.G.S. Proceedings, 1884, p. 250. No. I.—Janvary, 1895.] if 82 THE MONTHLY RECORD. Sess. Ex. Doc. 146). The surveys now completed jointly have been for the purpose of laying down this geography of the “Coast strip,” some 500 miles in length, with & maximum possible width of 30 geographical miles, in order that, if possible, an agreement as to the actual position of the line may be reached. Pending the dis. cussion of the completed maps which should result from the surveys, no line is mutually accepted or can be laid down authoritatively. The surveys and explora- tions have, of course, resulted in adding much to our knowledge of the region. Greater New York.—The problem of unification appears to be in course of settlement in New York, as we are informed that a new municipality to be known as “The City of New York,” upon which the electors of the various suburban towns had to vote in November, will have one chief executive and two separate legislative boards, The executive is to be aided by commissions, presided over by a single head. The property of each of the present municipalities will become the property of the new city, all debts and obligations will be assumed by the city of New York, and a uniform tax-rate will be imposed. The population of the various cities, towns, and villages which are embraced within the boundaries of the proposed Greater New York, aggregates 2,965,792, of which New York contributes 1,801,739, and Brooklyn 957,958, and the total area will be 317°77 square miles. POLAR REGIONS. Proposed Belgian Antarctic Expedition.—We learn from the Mouvement Géographique (1894, No. 25) that the subject of the equipment of a Belgian expe- dition to the Antarctic is occupying the attention of a group of Belgian scientists and others. If the necessary funds are forthcoming, it is proposed that the expedi- tion should start in September next, and should extend over a period of eighteen to twenty months. It would be fully equipped for scientific observation, and the route suggested is one to the east of Graham’s Land, in the direction of the recent discoveries of the Jason. In case it should be deemed impracticable to winter in those parts, that season would be occupied with investigations of the less-known parts of the Indian Ocean, MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Fjords: a Contribution to the Morphology of Coast-lines.—In the Zeitschrift of the Berlin Geographical Society (vol. xxix. p. 189), Herr P. Dinse publishes the first part of a valuable memoir on fjord-basins, in which he considers the structural character of this variety of coast. The most important part of the paper is a statistical supplement, in which he tabulates the numerical constants of no less than 83 different fjords, giving for each the position, length, depth, number of separate basins, with the slope of each from the head to the deepest part, and from the deepest part to the outlet, with several other particulars, The data were taken from the Admiralty and other charts of fjord-riven coasts in all parts of the world where these occur, and are discussed with the view of formulating a theory of fjord origin, which is promised ina later paper. After fully considering the varieties of type to be met with, Herr Dinse thus describes the essential features. Fjords are long narrow bays or sea-inlets penetrating an elevated or mountainous coast ; their sides slope steeply both above and below water, giving a trough-like cross-section, while the longitudinal section shows an irregular relief of gentle ridges and shallow troughs. In all true fjords the depth inside is greater than that of the stretch of sea immediately beyond the mouth. There are several variants of this type. Thus two fjords entering the coast at an angle may meet, forming a sound separating an island. Again, the bar at the mouth may be slightly elevated so as to become dry land, and a fjord-lake or loch results. Minor subdivisions include the fjird and schiren types of the Gulf of Bothnia, differing only in the relative frequency of islands and continuous coast, and the fdhrden type of the low coasts of i; i THE MONTHLY RECORD. 83 Denmark. These are entirely different from the inlets of the ria type, which occur on the coasts of Spain, south-western Ireland, and elsewhere. A ria is a more or less wedge-shaped inlet, gradually widening and uniformly deepening from its head to the sea, showing no trace of an included basin. It is noted, however, that prolonged sedimentation might ultimately convert a fjord into aria. The distribu- tion of fjords as distinguished from rias is subject to the general statement that there are no fjords except on the coasts of lands which show signs of recent glacial action. The coasts where they occur are those of Scandinavia, the west of Scotland, north-west of Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, and the coast of Maine, the west coast of North America from Alaska to Vancouver Island, the west coast of South America from Chiloe to Cape Horn, Kerguelen, the Antarctic lands, and the southern part of the west coast of the South Island in New Zealand. Mr. RB. Louis Stevenson on Maps.—The latent poetry and profound sug- gestiveness of a map has never been more gracefully exemplified than by the late Mr. Stevenson (whose premature death will be universally regretted) in a paper entitled, “ My First Book,” originally contributed to the Idler, and now published with others as a volume. His description of the origin of his own first novel is as follows: “On one of these occasions I made the map of an island; it was elaborately and (I thought) beautifully coloured. The shape of it took my fancy beyond expression ; it contained harbours that pleased me like sonnets, and, with the unconsciousness of the predestined, I ticketed my performance Treasure Island. I am told there are people who do not care for maps, and find it hard to believe. The names, the shapes of the woodland, the courses of the roads and rivers, the prehistoric footsteps of man still distinctly traceable up hill and down dale, the mills and the ruins, the ponds and the ferries, perhaps the Standing Stone or the Druidic Circle on the heath; here is an inexhaustible fund of interest for any man with eyes to see, or twopence’ worth of imagination to understand with! No child but must remember laying his head in the grass, staring into the infinitesimal forest, and seeing it grow populous with fairy armies. Somewhat in this way, as I paused upon my map of Treasure Island, the future characters of the book began to appear there visibly among imaginary woods; and their brown faces and bright weapons peeped out upon me from unexpected quarters, as they passed to and fro, fighting and hunting treasure, on these few square inches of a flat projection.” This map, which inspired the book, was lost on its way to the publishers, and the frontispiece which appears in Treasure Island had to be drawn to suit the data of the narrative, but it was never the same to the author. The map was indeed the seed of the story, every detail of which sprang from the ideal topography. Mr. Stevenson points out the great value of maps to the novelist, and cites instances in which the best writers have stumbled from the want of such a definite aid to the imagination as a map, real or imaginary. “But it is my contention—my superstition, if you like—that who is faithful to his map and consults it, and draws from it his inspiration, daily and hourly, gains positive support, and not mere negative immunity from accident. The tale has a root there. It grows in that soil. It has a spine of its own behind the words.” This is a special case, and a very interesting one, of the vast value of geography as an element of culture. And the inspiration to any author will be surprisingly increased by a full knowledge, not alone of the use of a map, but of the great principles of geography, which define the relation of the human race to their terrestrial dwelling-place. It may be found that geography, used as an instru- ment of intellectual training, will produce results unattainable by other : 2 G GENERAL. tbe 4 3 =, 84 MEETINGS OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, SESSION 1894-95. CORRESPONDENCE. Expedition to Novaya Zemlya. 63, Jermyn Street, W111 you permit me, through the medium of our Journal, to ask those Fellows of the Society (and I am sure there must be not a few) who have been yachting along or otherwise visiting the shores of Novaya Zemlya, if they would kindly give me any information in their power, especially about that part of the coast where the Matochkin Shar divides the two islands? I am intending, all being well, to take out at the end of the spring, as soon as the weather permits, a small expedition to explore the interior of Novaya Zemlya, with the view of obtaining as complete geographical, geological, botanical, and natural history results as possible, I have so far made my plans, and have secured the services of three very competent gentlemen: one is a retired officer in the Royal Navy, and a thoroughly capable nautical astronomer and geologist; an English doctor who will undertake the botany, a gentleman who is no novice in Arctic work, having acted as surgeon to the Peterhead whalers, and always kept the meteorological log for the Meteorological Society on these occasions; the third an artist,a known traveller and sportsman, and well up in all the shifts of camp-life, I personally shall undertake the zoology and general management. JosEPH RUSSELL J KAFFRESON, MEETINGS OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, SESSION 1894-95. Second Ordinary Meeting, November 26, 1894.—CLements R. Marxuay, Esq, C.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. Exections.—Captain Arthur (Rifle Brigade); John Warren Bakewell (Barrister- at-Law); C. H. Bellamy; Colonel G. H. Bolland (late R.E.); Geo. Wm. Brockle- hurst ; Charles de Bels Brounlie ; Nathaniel Grach Burch ; Samuel Butcher ; John Thorrow Campbell; John Edmund Chandler; Capt. Chas. Fredk. Close, R.E.; Capt. Chas. Francis Cromie; Major-General Robert Henry Cunliffe (late Madras Corps); Capt. Hy. Rodolph Davies (Oxford Light Infantry); Count Gleichen (Grenadier Guards); Capt. Douglas Haig, Tth (Queen’s Own) Hussars; Surgeon- Captain Seton G. Hamilton (1st Life Guards); David Theophilus Hanbury ; F. Leverton Harris, M.A.; Commander Norwood Harrison, R.N.R.; McArthur Herbert ; Alexander Hill; William Henry Himbury ; Edwin Keyworth ; Charles James Laffin, M.D.; George Lovett, B.A.; Wm. Lucas; Lieut.-Colonel F. Lutt- man-Johnson ; Major Richard H. MacCarthy (The King’s Own Regiment); Rev. Alexander Hugh Macdonald; Lieut.-Colonel W. T. McLeod; Thomas Murcott Martin, J.P.; William Miller, M.A.; Sir Lewis Molesworth; Lieut. George Molyneux- Montgomerie (Grenadier Guards); Wm. John Muller; William Mure ; Hugh Nisbet ; Robert Norton; Dr. Eduardo Prado; Tekoo Ram; Baron de Rio Branco; Wright Schofield; Captain J. R. B. Serjeant, R.E.; George Augustus Simcox ; Francis Geo. Smith, B.A,; General Sir Henry Augustus, K.C.M.G.; William Taylor ; Alexander Whitelaw ; Martin Leonard Winterton ; Count Wilby de Wagner ; Rev. D. Grenville Lewis; T. Douglas Murray ; Sidney Whitman. The Paper read was :-— “* A Journey to Tafilet, Morocco.” By Walter B. Harris. The Presipent said: At our last meeting I announced to you the improve- ments we have been making in the Society’s premises, and I have since found so i | i i | 1 | { | i 1 i . | j ; | GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH, 85 many Fellows who are scarcely acquainted with the treasures we possess there and the comforts that have been introduced for your use, that I have decided upon inviting the Fellows to a reception in the afternoon—a sort of afternoon tea—about the first week of December, when I hope a good many Fellows will come and go over the premises, to see for themselves what their possessions are, and the immense value of the great library, the collection of maps, and the facilities now afforded to study them. Third Ordinary Meeting, December 10, R. Esq., ¢.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. Exections.— Lieutenant William Henry Barham, R.N.R.; John Boyle; Edward Oliver Goodinge ; Major H. M. Lawson, R.E.; Henry Lester Lewis; Carl Bogue Luffman ; Edward John Payne ; Major William Peacocke, R.E., C.M.G. ; Harry Jones Thaddeus. The Paper read was :— “On Kolguef, in Barents Sea.” By Aubyn Trevor Battye. GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH. Additions to the Library. By HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sce., Librarian, R.G.S. Tue following abbreviations of nouns and the adjectives derived from them are employed to indicate the source of articles from other publications. Geographical names are in each case written in full :— hye ee , Academie, Akademie. . | Mag. = Magazine. Annals, Annales, Annalen. | P. = Proceedings. -_ Bulletin, Bollettino, Boletim. | R. = Royal. | Com, = Commerce, Commercial. Rey. = Review, Revue, Revista. 0. R. = Comptes Rendus. 8. = Society, Société, Selskab. Erdk. = unde. Sitzb. = Sitzungsbericht. = Geografla, T. = Transactions. | V. = Verein. = Institute, Institution. Verh. = Verhandlungen. J. = Journal. W. = Wissenschaft, and compounds. M. = Mitteilungen. | Z. = Zeitschrift. On account of the ambiguity of the words octavo, quarto, etc., the size of books in the list below is denoted by the length and breadth of the cover in inches to the nearest half-inch. The size of the Journal is 10 x 64. EUROPE. Alps. Conway. An Alpine Journal. By W. M. Conway. From the Contemporary Review, August, 1894, Notes of mountaineering in the Ligurian Alps, Mr. Conway being accompanied by two of the Gurkhas who accompanied him in his Karakoram journey. and Wales—Canals. Wells. Mem. P. Manchester Lit. and Phil. 8. 8 (1894) : 187-204. A sketch of the history of the Canal and River Navigations of England and Wales and of their present Coy with suggestions for their future development. By Lionel B. Wells This paper is accompanied by the excellent map of English canals and navigable rivers, prepared by Messrs. Wells and Swindells. France—Rochefort. B.S.G. Rochefort 16 (1894): 173-179. Fonteneau. Contributions & 1’étude de Ja géographie historique de Rochefort et de la région. q 7 a $ 86 GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH. The notes are printed from the manuscripts written by Dom Fonteneau as a com- mentary on a map executed from surveys completed in 1700. Greece—Earthquakes. Petermanns M, 40 (1894): 217-227. Mitzopulos. Die Erdbeben von Theben und Lokris in den Jahren 1893 und 1894. Von. Prof. Dr. Constantin Mitzopulos in Athens. Treland—Achill Island. Hayes. A Holiday in the Far West. Achill Island. [By A. J. Hayes.] With sketches by Charles Whymper. From the Leisure Hour, August, 1894. Italy—Lakes. B.S G. Italiana (1I1.) 7 (1894) : 710-740. Marinelli. Aggruppamenti principali dei laghi italiani, Osservazioni del Socio Olinto Marinelli. With Maps. The Italian lakes are grouped in this paper according to their origin as Cirque lakes, found in the higher Alps; Alpine ralley na the great Subalpine lakes, with a bathy- metrical sketch-map of Lago Maggiore; Morainic lakes, in the centre of moraine amphitheatres ; Karst lakes; Crater lakes; and Coast lakes. Lipari Ie'ands. Ludwig Salvator. Die Liparischen Inseln. Achtes Heft; Allgemeiner Theil. Prague: H. Mercy, 1894. Size 16} x 13, pp. x. and 160. Map, Plan, and Illustra- tions. Presented by the Archduke Ludwig Salvator. By the publication of the present part this magnificent work on the Lipari islands is completed. Former instalments dealt fully with the detailed geography of the islands; the concluding part deals with generalities regarding climate, population, agriculture, staple products, hunting, fishing, shipping, mining, manufactures, and trade. For sumptuous paper and typography alone the work is unique; the illustra- tions are fine woodcuts, and the maps splendidly engraved and coloured. Norway—Finmark. Lindesay. Rambles in Norsk Finmarken. By George Lindesay. From the Fort- nightly Review, November, 1894. : The narrative of a fishing-expedition, with many references to minor natural ristory. Norway—Gravity Observations. Schidtz. Die norwegische Commission der Europiischen Gradmessung. Resul- tate der im Sommer 1893 in dem nérdlichsten Theile Norwegens ausge- fiihrten Pendelbeobachtungen nebst einer Untersuchung iiber den Eintiuss von Bodenerschiitterungen auf die Schwingungszeit eines Pendels. Von O. E. Schidtz, Christiania, 1894. Size 11 x 7, pp. 42. Russia—Crimea. Wood. The Crimea in 1854 and 1894. By General Sir Evelyn Wood, G c.n., etc. From the Fortnightly Review, October, November, and December, 1894. With plans of the Crimean battle-fields. Russia—Southern Forests. Tanfiljew. Die Waldgranzen in Siidrussland (Mit einer Waldkarte). Von G. I. Tan- filjew. St. Petersburg, 1894. Size 10 x 64, pp.176. Presented by the Author. The text of this work is in Russian, but there is a short German abstract. The four chapters are respectively entitled—Considerations as to the Treeless Character of the Steppes, The Soil and Vegetation of the Black Earth Region, Connection between the Forest and Steppelands, and The Pine-woods of the Steppe Region. Bussia. Leroy-Beaulieu. The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians. By Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu. Translated from the Third French Edition with Annotations, by Zénaide A. Ragozin. Part L—The Country and its Inhabitants. Part I1—The Institutions. New York and London, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1893-94. Size 94 x 64, pp. (Pt. L.) xx. and 588; (Pt. IL) ix. and 566. Maps. Price (each vol.) 128. 6d. Presented by the Publishers. This is an excellent translation by a Russian of M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s work on Russia. The volumes are illustrated by several maps, the source of which is not stated. The work is divided into “ Books,” dealing, in Part I.,“'The Country and its Inhabitants,” respectively with nature, climate and soil, races and nationality, the national temperament and character, history and the elements of civilization, the social hierarchy, nobility and tchin, the peasant and the emancipation, Mir, family, and : Biss i GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH. 87 village communities. Part IT., “ The Institutions,” deals with the forms of government and administration, with justice, the press, and revolutionary agitation. The translator also annotates the original work, supplying a series of valuable footnotes and appendices, which is of considerable assistance to the English reader who wishes to understand the Russia of to-day. , Seotland—Ben Nevis. Whymper. The Observatory on the summit of Ben Nevis. By Edward Whymper. From the Leisure Hour for September, 1894. With Illustrations. Ssotland—Glaciation. P. Philosophical S. Glasgow (1893-94) 25: 118-136. Bell. On the Glaciation of the West of Scotland. By Dugald Bell. With Map and Plates. Mr. Bell writes from long personal knowledge of the country, and bas carefully weighed the evidence with regard to the various interpretations of the phenomena observed. Scotland—Shetland. P. Philosoph. S. Glasgow (1893-94) 25: 108-117. Ross. Some Notes on the Place-Names and Dialect of Shetland. By David Ross, Switzerland. Annuaire de la Suisse Pittoresque et Hygiénique. Stations de cures d’air, bains, belles excursions, villes d’hiver de ja Méditerranée. Qua- trieme édition, 1894-1895. Lausanne: Bureau de la Bibliotheque Uni- verselle. Size 64 x 44, pp. 532. Illustrations, Price 3s. Switzerland. Le Globe 38 (1894): 1-60, Coulin. Apergu sur la Topographie en Suisse I. Historique et Travaux prélimi- naires, Lever de détail, Progrés de la Cartographie Fédérale. II. Sondages de nos Lacs. Par M. Horace-L. Coulin, ingr. topographe. An account of the methods employed in the Swiss Surveys, which commenced in 1832 with the measurement of a base-line at Zurich. The Dufour map, on the scale of 1: 100,000 in 25 sheets with hachures, is kept up to date, corrections being entered on the original copper plates. A reduction on the scale of 1 : 250,000 is also kept up, the map being in four sheets. Finally the Siegfried Atlas contains about 560 sheets, on the scale of 1 : 50,000, or of 1 : 25,000, with contours. This map will be completed in a few years. A description of the methods of lake-sounding in use by the Swiss Survey includes an account of the manner in which the land and water surveys are combined on the official maps. ASIA. Arabia and Palestine. Hull. Apergu de le Structure Géologique de l’Arabie Pétrée et de la Palestine. Par "fe Professeur Edward Hull. Litge: H. Vaillant-Carmanne, 1894. Size 93 x 6}, pp. 15. Presented by the Author. This paper was read at the Ziirich meeting of the International Geological Congress. It is a concise summary of the results published in the ‘Memoirs of the Palestine Exploration Fund’ in 1886, under the title, “On the Physical Geology and Geography of Arabia-Petrwa and Palestine.” China. Landor. A Journey to the Sacred Mountain of Siao-outai-shan, China. By A. H. Savage Landor. From the Fortnightly Review, September, 1894. China—Hakkaland. Irving. A Ride in Hakkaland. By E. A. Irving. From Blackwood’s Magazine, November, 1894. Eastern Asia. Corea, China, and Japan. By R. 8S. Gundry. From the Fortnightly Review, November, 1894. Summarizes the historical relations of the three countries. Eastern Asia. Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 21 (1894): 456-476. Richthofen. Herr von Richthofen: Der Schauplatz des Krieges zwischen Japan und China. A full abstract of this paper appears in the Journal for December, 1894. 88 GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH. India, Schmidt. Reise nach Siidindien. Von Emil Schmidt (Leipzig). Leipzig: W. — mann, 1894, Size 94 x 64, pp. viii. and 314. Jllustrations. Price 8s. Dr. Schmidt travelled in the south of India, visiting Madras, Travancore, the Nilgiri hills, Cochin, and the intervening districts, with the special object of making ethnographical observations. India—Orissa. Waddell. Identification of the old Orissan port of Chitratala, the “ Che-li-ta-lo” of Hiuen Tsiang. By L. A. Waddell. From the Proceedings Asiatic Society of Bengal for December, 1892. Size 9 x 6}, pp. 3. Presented by the Author. The port has been identified by Mr. Waddell at a distance of 50 miles inland from the present coast-line, thus furnishing a clue to the rate of the formation ot the Mahanadi delta during the last 1250 years. Indo-China. Ehlers, In Sattel durch Indo-China. Von Otto E. Ehlers. 2 vols. 3rd edition. Berlin, 1894. Size 9 x 6, pp. (vol. i.) 332, (vol. ii.) 301. Map and Illustrations. Price 12s. An interesting journey well described, with appropriate illustrations. The author went from Moulmein to the north-west of Siam, and, crossing into Tonkin, descended the Red River to Haiphong, returning by sea, with halts at various towns on the coast, to Singapore, Johore, and Bangkok. Japan—Music. Smith. The Music of Japan (with examples). By Miss Laura A. Smith. From the Nineteenth Century, December, 1894. Karakoram Mountains. Conway. Climbing and Exploration in the Karakoram Himalayas. By William Martin Conway. Containing Scientific Reports by Prof. T. G. Bonney, Dr. A. G. Butler, W. Martin Conway, W. Laurence, H. Duckworth, Lieut.-Col. A. G. Durand, W. Botting Hemsley, W. F. Kirby, Miss C. A. Raisin, and Prof. C. F. Roy. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1894. Size 10 x 6}, pp. viii. and 127. Map and Portrait. Price 15s. Presented by the Publisher. This volume completes the record of Mr. Conway’s successful expedition to the Karakoram mountains, by presenting the scientific reports on his collections and the fine maps of the glacier region he traversed, which have been prepared and separately published by the Royal Geographical Society. The letterpress of the volume consists of nine papers. Mr. Conway himself gives a series of notes on the map, pointing out how a mountaineer’s map of a mountain system differs from that of a government surveyor, for whom the “anatomy of the mountain” is less important than the form and extent of the valley floors and the position of the prominent peaks. He also gives a list of his measured altitudes. Colonel Durand contributes a general account of the Eastern Hindu Kush, Professor Bonney and Miss Raisin describe the rock specimens, Mr. W. Botting Hemsley treats of the plants, Mr. W. F. Kirby of the butterflies, and Dr. A. G. Butler of the moths. Mr. L. H. Duckworth describes two Nagyr skulls, and Professor C. Roy discourses on mountain sickness from Mr. Conway’s notes. Malay Archipelago—Horses. Veth. Het Paard onder de Volken van het Maleische ras. Door Prof. P. J. Veth. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1894. Size 9 x 6, pp. v. and 176. A monograph on the horse in Malay lands, treating of the mythology of the subject, as well as of the present use of horses by different Malay peoples. Pamirs. Z. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 29 (1894): 289-346. Hedin. Forschungen iiber die physische Geographie des Hochlandes von Pamir im Friihjahr, 1894. Von Dr. Sven Hedin. This long and valuable memoir is illustrated by a number of maps and sketches on the spot by the enterprising Swedish traveller, and published with a promptitude on which the Berlin Geographical Society must be congratulated. Persia. Morgan. Ministtre de 1’Instruction Publique, des Beaux-Arts et des Cultes. Mission scientifique en Perse. Par J.de Morgan. Tome Premier. Etudes Géographiques. Paris: E. Leroux, 1894. Size 114 x 9, pp. xxxvi. and 427. Maps and Illustrations. Price 40s. | 5 = 4 GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH. 89 After short general descriptions of the Iranian plateau, its fauna, flora, inhabitants, and history, a more detailed account is given of the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and of Aserbaijan. A long list of the place-names of the northern provinces of Persia is also given. There is a full index and a very complete set of illustrations, including 199 figures in the text and 58 full-page heliogravure photographic repro- ductions. Three succeeding volumes are intended to treat respectively of Linguistic and Ethnographic researches, Archeology, and Geology. Philippine Islands. B.S.G. Madrid 36 (1894): 129-153. Aguilar. Estado actual y porvenir del Archipiélago Filipino, Conferencia dada el 20 de Marzo de 1894. Por D. José Nieto Aguilar. Carrel. In Syria. By Frederic Carrel. From the Fortnightly Review, October, 1894. Sketches of contemporary life in Syria. AFRICA. British East Africa—Geology. Contributions to the Geology of British East Africa.—Part I., The Glacial Geology of Mount Kenya. By J. W. Gregory. From the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for November, 1894. Size 84 x 54. Map and Illustrations. Presented by the Author. Eritrea. Schweinfurth. Prof. Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Il mio recente viaggio col Dr. Max Schoeller nell’ Eritrea Italiana. Estratto dal Bollettino della Societa d’Esplora- zione Commerciale in Africa. Milan: -P. B. Bellini, 1894. Size 104 x 74, pp. 35. Plates. Presented by the Author. A preliminary abstract of Prof. Schweinfurth’s detailed account of his recent journey in Italian East Africa, published in the Zeitschrift of the Berlin Geographical Society. Blind. The Fictitious French Claim to Madagascar. By Karl Blind. From the Contemporary Review, December, 189%. Martineau. Etude de Politique Contemporaine. Madagascar en ‘894. Par A. Martineau. Paris: E. Flammarion [1894]. Size 94 x 6, pp. vii. and 500. Map. Price 83s. This volume gives an account of the history of French relations with Madagascar, and of the various treaties and arrangements made between the French and the Hova — There are also particulars as to the Hova army and the commerce of the Madagascar—Majunga. § Rev. Maritime 123 (1894): 310-338. Landrieu. Majunga, son importance, son avenir. Par M. G. Landrieu. A description of the town of Majunga and of the manners of its inhabitants, includ- ing the menu of a dinner of 130 courses. The principal imports in order of value are rum, absinthe, and cotton goods; the chief exports are indiarubber and hides. M. Landrieu considers that an expeditionary force could reach Antananarivo more easily by Majunga than by Tamatave. Morocco. Kerr. Pioneering in Morocco: a Record of Seven Years’ Medical Mission Work in the palace and the hut. By Dr. Robert Kerr, as agent of the Presby- terian Church of England. London: H. R. Allenson [1894]. Size 8 x 54, pp. 251. Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d. Presented by the Publieher. The record contained in this little book is written from the missionary standpoint exclusively. A reproduction of a Moorish map of the world is given, which resembles the medizval wheel-maps, but has the directions of east and west reversed. Morocco—Tafilet. B.S.G. Paris 15 (1894): 199-227. Delbrel. Notes sur le Tafilet. Par Gabriel Delbrel. Notes from memory on the oasis of Tafilet, which was several times visited by M. Delbrel while a prisoner in Morocco. His taste for drawing gained him the friend- ship of the present emperor, who gave him a certain amount of liberty, sufficient to | : 90 enable him to see a good deal of Tafilet, and ultimately to escape to Mazagan, whence GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH. he returned to France. South Africa—Game. The Extermination of great game in South Africa. By H. A. Bryden. From the Fortnightly Review, October, 1894. NORTH AMERICA. Alaska—Mount St. Elias. Russell. Second Expedition to Mount St. Elias, by Israel Cook Russell. In the Thirteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1891-92. PartII.—Geology. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1893. Size 114 x 8, pp. 1-91. Maps and Plates. The complete and authoritative record of this expedition, preliminary reports of which have frequently been referred to in the Journal. A large part of the memoir is occupied with the description of the great Malaspina glacier, and its remarkable forest-clad moraines. American Palwozoic Geography. Walcott. The North American Continent during Cambrian time. By Charles Doolittle Walcott. In the Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1890-91. Part. I—Geology. Washington : Government Printing Office, 1891. Size 11} x 8, pp. 524-568. Map and Sections. Canada. Dawson. The Royal Society of Canada. Presidential Address of 1894. The Progress and trend of Scientific Investigation in Canada. By George M. Dawson. Ottawa, 1894. Size 12 x 9, pp. 17. Presented by the Author. United States. Gannett. The Average Elevation of the United States. By Henry Gannett. In the Thirteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1891-92. Part II. Geology. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1893. Size 114 x 8, pp. 283-289. The results of this investigation have been given in the Journal, vol. iii. (1894), p. 333. United States. Shaler. The United States of America. A study ofthe American Commonwealth, its Natural Resources, People, Industries, Manufactures, Commerce, and its work in Literature, Science, Education, and Self-Government. Edited by Nathaniel Southgate Shaler. 2 vols. London: Sampson Low & Co., 1894, Size 10} x 7, pp. (vol. i.) xxv. and 670, (vol. ii.) viii. and 649. Maps and Plates. Price 36s. These large volumes are the joint production of Professor Shaler and a number of collaborators, each chapter being signed by the author. Thus Professor Shaler appears to be the writer of the six chapters dealing with the general and physical geography of the United States; the ethnographical, political, social, and economic sections being contributed by Major Powell, Mr. H. H. Bancroft, Colonel Dodge, and twenty other specialists. United States—California. Hutchings. Souvenir of California. Yo Semite Valley and the Big Trees. What to see and how to see it. By J. M. Hutchings. San Francisco: J. M. Hutchings [1894]. Size 7 x 5, pp. 101. Maps and Illustrations. Pre- sented by the Author. A neat and compact guide-book, excellently illustrated. United States—District of Columbia. National G. Mag. 6 (1894): 149-178. Baker. Surveys and Maps of the District of Columbia. Marcus Baker. With Plate. This paper will be specially noticed in the Monthly Record. United States Geological Survey. Powell. Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior, 1890-91. By J. W. Powell, Director. Part L— Geology. Part I1,—Irrigation. Thirteenth ditto, 1891-92. By J. W. Powell. In Three Parts. Part I.—Report of the Director; Part I1.— 4 ; : GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH. Geology; Part III.—Irrigation. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1891-93. Size 114 x 8. Maps and Plates. Presented by the U.S. Geological Survey. United States—New York. — Report on the progress of the State Land Survey of the State of New York. Albany, 1891. Size 9 x 6, pp. 306. Maps and Plates. Presented by Mr. Verplanck Colvin. This report gives a quantity of miscellaneous information about the Adirondack region of New York State, its fauna, flora, and the survey of boundary-lines, with some illustrations of the scenery of the district, and sketch-maps on the scale of 1: 1000 of certain small areas of the region. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. Argentine—Magnetism. B.A. Nacional Ciencas Cordoba 12 (1892): 321-369. Doering. Las manifestaciones del Magnetismo Terrestre en la provincia de Cordoba. Por Oscar Doering. The observations on the magnetic elements made in 1890 are compared with the earlier work of Mac Rae in 1852, and of an Argentine Commission in 1882. British Guiana. J. R. Colonial I. 26 (1894-5) : 37-40. Dixon. The Possibilities of the North-West District of British Guiana. By George G. Dixon. y. B.S.G. Italiana 7 (1894) : 695-710. Balzan. Da Trinidad a S. Cruz de la Sierra e Corumba e ritorno al Paraguay. Del Prof. Luigi Balzan. Previous notes of this journey were given in the Bollettino of the Italian Geographi- eal Society for 1893, pp. 454, and 920, and for 1894, p. 61. Peru—Chanchamayo. B.S.G. Lima 4 (1894): 1-32. Carranza. Geografia descriptiva y estadistica industrial de Chanchamayo. Por D. Albino Carranza, South America. Jonin. Alexander Jonin. Durch Siid-Amerika, Reise- und Kulturhistorische Bilder. Erster Band. Die Pampa-Lander. Autorisierte und vom Autor bis auf die neueste Zeit vervollstandigte Ausgabe des russischen Origi- nals iibersetzt von M. v. Pezold. Berlin, 8. Cronbach, 1895 (1894). Size 9 x 6, pp. xi. and 943. Price 15s. The author spent a considerable time in South America, and the object of his work is to give as vivid an account as possible of the continent in its relation to plants, animals,and man. The present volume deals with Southern Brazil, Uruguay, Para- y, and the Argentine Republic in a large number of short interesting chapters. ere are neither illustrations nor maps. AUSTRALASIA. Antipodes Island. Cast away on Antipodes Island. By J. Revans Chapman. From the Leisure Hour, September, 1894. With Illustrations. Australian Exploration. Thynne. The Story of Australian Exploration. By R.Thynne. London: T. Fisher — 1894. Size 8x 5, pp. vi. and 277. Map and Illustrations. rice 5s. The narrative is attractive reading for boys, telling the story of Australian inland exploration like a novel. Fiji Islands. P. and T. Queensland Br. R.G.S. Australasia 9 (1893-94) : 22-51. Thomson. hi . P. Thomson. revised and enlarged edition of the paper by the same author which appeared in the Scottish Geographical Magazine for March, 1894. e Pacific Islands. Guillemard. Stanford’s Compendium of Geography and Travel (New Issue). Australasia. Vol. Il. Malaysia and the Pacitie Archipelagoes. Edited and greatly extended frem Dr. A. R. Wallace’s ‘ Australusia.’? By F. H. H. Guille- mard., London, E. Stanford, 1894. Size 8 x 54, pp. xvi. and 574. Maps and Illustrations. Price 15s. J resented by the Publisher. gu 92 GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE OF THE MONTH. This is practically a new work, which gives a full and satisfactory general account of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, Melanesia, and Mikronesia. The illustrations, although not numerous, are appropriate, and there is a sufficient supply of maps on fair scale to enable the reader to follow all the descriptions, Polynesia. Rev. G. 18 (1894): 353-370. Barre, P. Barré, La conquéte de l’Océanie par les nations européennes. With Map. The map is a rough and not very legible sketch showing the dates of annexation by European powers of the various parts of Australasia and the islands of the Pacific, but a series of clear statistical tables gives all the dates, areas, and populations in a con- venient and useful way. Western Australia—Mining Handbook. Woodward. Mining Handbook to the Colony of Western Australia, written especially for Prospectors and Strangers to the Colony who are interested in Mining. By Harry P. Woodward, Government Geologist. Perth, 1894. Size 94 x 6, pp. 126. Maps and Plates. Presented by the Agent-General for Western Australia. At the present time this official statement should be very useful to all those interested in the development of the mineral resources, and especially the gold, of Western Australia, It is written in a popular manner, but aims to give a scientific account of the minerals and their distribution. Hints to prospectors, a glossary of mining terms, and a state- ment of the means of reaching and travelling through the colony are appended, POLAR REGIONS. Antarctic Regions. Murdoch. From Edinburgh to the Antarctic. An Artist’s Notes and Sketches during the Dundee Antarctic Expedition of 1892-93. By W. G. Burn Murdoch. With a Chapter by W. 8. Bruce, Naturalist of the barque Balena. London: Longmans & Co., 1894. Size 94 x 6, pp. ix. and 364. Chart and Illustrations. Price 188. Presented by the Publishers. Mr. Burn Murdoch, it will be remembered, accompanied the Dundee whaling expedition to the Antarctic regions in 1892-93, a scientific report on which was presented to the Society by Mr. W. 8. Bruce. The narrative is richly illustrated by the author’s clear and characteristic sketches, and gives a lively record of a very unconventional voyage. Incidentally it throws light on the reasons which led to the geographical barrenness of the expedition. Arctic Exploration. Cosmos 11 (1892-93) : 348-359. Cora. Le Spedizioni di R. E. Peary nella Groenlandia Nord (1891-92, 1893 e seq.). Cenni del prof. Guido Cora. Professor Guido Cora illustrates his résumé of the results of Peary’s first — by a splendidly executed map of the Arctic regions in the neighbourhood of Smi Sound, which should possess interest for a wider public than that of Italy. The names on the map are all in English, and the work is compiled almost exclusively from British and American sources. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Astronomy—Catalogue of Stars. Catalogue of 6424 Stars for the epoch 1890. Formed from Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, during the years 1880-1893. Under the superintendence of Edward James Stone. Oxford, J. Parker and Co., 1894. Size 114 x 9, pp. xv. and 287. Presented by the Radcliffe Trustees. Earthquakes. Actes 8. Sci. Chili 4 (1894): 37-55. Krahnass. A. Krabnass, Coincidence des phénomenes météorologiques et des tremble- ments de terre avec les maxima et les minima d’attraction lunaire et solaire verticale pour un lieu donné (avec tableaux). ° M. Militér-G. I. Wien 13 (1893) : 74-167. Sterneck. Die Polhéhe und ibre Schwankungen, beobachtet auf der Sternwarte des k. und k. militir-geographischen Institutes zu Wien. Von Oberstlieu- tenant Robert von Sterneck. The variation of latitude at Vienna was found, as the result of fourteen months’ obser- vations, to amount to 0’"22 with a period of twelve months. Stone: 1 NEW MAPS, On the Influence of the Configuration and Direction of Coast Lines upon the Rate and Range of the Secular Magnetic Declination. By Henry Wilde. 93 Magnetic Conditions. Mem. P. Manchester Lit. & Phil. 8. 8 (1894): 181-186. Wilde. Mr. Wilde has arrived at a new theory of the cause and changes of terrestrial magnetism in consequence of experiments with his magnetarium, and he attributes to the oceans an effect similar to that produced by a partial covering of thin sheet-iron on his electrical model. In consequence of this he is inclined to doubt the actual truth of the symmetrical lines shown on the variation charts, which represent the isogonals passing unchanged from land to sea, and he suggests as a practical application that special care should be taken in navigation “ off the greatly extended coast-lines of deep seas, where the rate and range of the secular decliaation are large in amount.” NEW MAPS. By J. Coles, Map Curator, R.G.S. EUROPE. England and Wales. Ordnance Survey. Publications issued since November 8, 1894. l-inch :— ENGLAND AND WaLeEs:—151 (192, 209), 213 (226, 227), 228, 231, 310, 311, engraved in outline; 147, 158, 173, 176, 186, 187, hills photozincographed in brown, ls. each. 6-inch—County Maps :— ENGLAND AND WALES :—Laneashire, 58 N.£., 59 N.W., N.E., 8.W., 68 N.W.,8.W., 75 N.E., 8.W., 76 N.E., 79 N.W., N.E., &W., 82 N.E., 83 N.E., 8.W., 8.E., 84 8.W., 8.E., 85 N.W., 86 N.w., 87 N.w., 88 8.w., 90 N.w., N.E, 91 N.E., 92 N.W., N.E., 8.W., 8.E., 93 N.W., N.E., 8.W., §.E., 94. N.E., S.E., 958E., 96 N.W., S.E., 98 N.W., 8.E., 100 N.£., 102 n.w., 103 104 N.z., 106 107 N.w., 108 N.w., 113 8.W., 114 s.w., 117 8.8., ls. each. Yorkshire, 215 N.W., N.E., 8.E., 217 N.W., 230 s.w., 232 n.w., 234 s.w., 248 N.z., 273 N.E., 279 N.E., 294 8.z., 299 N.E., 1s. each. 25-inch—Parish Maps :— ENGLAND Wa.Es:—Lancashire, LXII. 11, 12, 15, 11s. 6d.; 16, 208. 6d.; LXX. 3, 11s. 6d.; 4, 88.; CV. 8, 8s.; 11, 88.; 12,48. York- shire, XVIII. 16, 4¢.; XIX. 6, 4s.; XXX. 8, 3s. (coloured). Town Plans—5-feet scale :— London (Revision), VI. 28, with houses stippled, 2s. 6d. 10-feet scale London—Re-survey (Hornsey Parish), III. 34, 4; IJI. 44,3; III. 52, 2; IIL. 53, 1; IIL. 75, 1, with houses stippled, 2s. 6d. each. (E. Stanford, Agent.) Germany. Konigl. Preuss. Landes-Aufnahme. Karte des Deutschen Reiches. Scale 1: 100,000 or 1°7 stat. miles to an inch, Herausgegeben von der Kartogr. Abtheilung der Kénigl. Preuss. Landes-Aufnahme, 1894. Sheets: 157 Labes, 246 Konigsberg i. d. Neum, 250 Czarnikau, 275 Samter. Price 1.50 marks each sheet. Switzerland. Geologische Karte der Schweiz. Auf Grundlage der Beitrige zur geolog. Karte der Schweiz und der neuesten Materialien, sowie unter Mitwirkung der Herren Renevier, Rollier, Schardt, Lugeon, Miihlberg, Penck, etc., bearbeitet im Auftrage der Schweizerischen geologischen Commission von Dr. Alb. Heim and Dr. C. Schmidt. Topogr. Grundlage von R. Leuzinger. Farbendruck v. der topogr. Anstalt Winterthur. Scale 1: 500,000 or 7°9 stat. miles to an inch, Heim & Schmidt. In the preparation of this map, Leuzinger’s “ Relief-Karte der Schweiz” has been as a basis. The colours to illustrate the geological features have been well chosen, and it is in all respects an excellent specimen of cartography. | | | | : 94 Indian Government Surveys. East Africa. ASIA. Bombay Presidency); 22 n.w., parts of Kathiawar, Cutch, and Palanpur Agencies, of district Ahmedabad and of Native State Baroda (Gujarat, Bombay Presidency); 35 n.x., parts of Native States Gwalior and Indore (Central India Agency), and of 'Udaypur, Tank, Bundi, and Jhallawar (Rajputana Agency); 61 N.w., part of district Mysore (Mysore); 69 s.z., parts of Panna, Chark, and Chhatarpur (Native States, Bundelkhand Agency), and of districts Hamipur, Futtehpur, and Banda (N.W. Provinces); 86 s.w., parts of districts Kheri and Bahraich of Oudh and Native State Nepal; 92 n.e., parts of districts Raipur, and of Native States Patna, Kalahandi, Kanker, Bastar (C. Provinces and Jeypore (Vizagapatam Agency), Madras Presidency; 131 s.w., portions of dis- tricts Cachar and North Lushai Hills, and of Manipur Native State (Assam).—India showing Railways, ecale 96 miles to an inch, corrected up to March 31, 1894.—Bengal Survey, 1 inch to a mile, Sheet No. 222, districts Balasore and Cuttack, Killa Kanika and Killa Kujang, Season 1888-90; No. 248, districts Cuttack and Balasore (Killa Kanika), Seasons 1888-90.—Bombay Survey, 1 inch to a mile, No. 158, parts of Surat and Nasik Districts, and Bansda Dharampur, Baroda and Surgana States, Seasons 1881-85 and 1891-92; No. 240, portions of Native States under Kolhapur Agency and Belgaum District, Season 1891-92; No. 273, rtions of Belgaum District and Native States under Kolhapur Agency, ms 1890-92.—Lower Burma Survey, 1 inch to a mile, districts Hanthawaddy and Thongwa, Seasons 1880-81 and 1889-91; No. 237, district Thongwa, Seasons 1889-91.—N.W. Provinces and Oudh Survey, 1 inch to a mile, No. 97, districts Naini Tal and Bareilly, Seasons 1866-67, 1871-73, and 1886-89.—Index to the Survey of Forest Reserves in the Jhansi District, Seasons 1888-90, scale 24 miles to an inch.— Hyderabad Survey, scale 1 inch to 2 miles, Sheets Nous. 202, 203, 212, and 213, part of Khamamet Circar.—Central India and Rajputana Survey, 1 inch to a mile, No. 382, part of Gwalior (C. I. Agency), Season 1862-63.—Index to the Standard Sheets of the Central Provinces, 32 miles to an inch, May, 1894.—Mysore, Skeleton Edition, 13 miles to an inch, with the addition of the Province of Coorg, and railways up to February, 1894.—District Katha, Upper Burma, 4 miles to an inch, March, 1894.—District Goalpara, Assam, 4 miles to an inch, with additions and corrections up to October, 1893.—District Bhagalpur, Lower Provinces, Bengal, 4 miles to an inch, 2nd edition, with additions and corrections up to June, 1892.—District Amritsar, 2 miles to an inch, with additions and corrections up to July, 1888 (2 sheets).—Pilibhit, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1892.—District Merwara, Rajputana, 8 miles toan inch, 1894.—District Mainpura, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1891. District Allahabad, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1892.—District Basti, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1891.—. District Benares, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles toan inch.— District Bulandshahr, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1891.— District Dehra Dun, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1891.— District Etawah, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1891.— District Gonda, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1890.— District Gorakhpur, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 8 miles to an inch, 1891. —District Jhansi, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 12 miles to an inch, 1894. —District Hazaribagh, Bengal, 8 miles to an inch, 1894.—District Cham- ran, Bengal, 8 miles to an inch, 1891. Presented by H.M. Secretary of for India, through India Office. AFRICA. Surveyor-General of India, Indian Atlas. 4 miles to aninch. Sheets: No. 103, parts of districts Azimgurh, Ghazipur, and Benares (N.W. Provinces), Tirhut, Sarun, Patna, Sharabad and Gya (Bengal).— Quarter Sheets: Nos. 1 N.z., parts of districts Shikarpur, Karachi, and Hyderabad and Khairpur State (Sind, Bombay Presidency) ; 8 N.z., parts of districts Dera Ghazi Khan, ee (Native State); 9 s.e., part of Khairpur Native State (Sind, Baumann. Karte des Forschungsgebietes der Massai-Expedition des Deutschen Antisklaverei-Komite. Nach den Originalaufnahmen yon Dr. Oscar NEW MAPS. ; a i} ! i AI i} i | NEW MAPS. Baumann, reduziert von Dr. Bruno Hassenstein. Scale 1: 1,500,000 or 23°5 stat. miles to an inch. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, Hvefer and Vohsen, 1894. In addition to the principal map, on which the results of Dr. Oscar Baumann’s explorations are shown, there are two insets, one _— a geological sketch-map of German East Africa, and the other an ethnographical sketch-map of the same region. The proposed route for the railway between Tanga and — Gulf, Victoria Nyanza, is laid down, periodical and permanent water-courses are distinguished by the manner in which they are drawn, and heights are given in metres. East Africa. Kiepert. Karte der Nyaia-Expedition des Gouverneurs Obersten Freiherrn von Schele. Nach den Aufnahmen des Kompagniefiihrers H. Ramsay, und mit Benutzung unverdffentlichter Aufnahmen von Lieut. Bohmer, Lieut. Fromm, Kompagniefiihrer Herrmann, Kapitiin Prager, Stationskontrolleur Schmidt II., Dr. F. Stuhlmann und anderen, sowie des ailteren Routen- materials, konstruirt und gezeichnet von Dr. Richard Kiepert unter Mithiilfe von Prof. Dr. Freiherr von Danckelman, Dr. M. Limpricht, M. Moisel und P. Sprigade. Scale 1:500,000 or 7°9 stat. miles to an inch, Berlin: Dietrich Reimer (Hoefer & Vohsen). 4 sheets. This map, which has been compiled from the most recent and reliable material, includes all that portion of East Central Africa between Lat. 7° S. and 11° S. and Long. 34° E. and 40° E. The routes of all principal explorers are laid down, those fullowed by H. Ramsay being distinguished by being coloured red. Numerous notes with reference to the routes and descriptive of the country are given on the map, as well as a table explaining the meaning of the symbols and lettering employed. Tunis, Service geographique de ]’Armée. Tunisie. Carte Reconnaissance. Scale 1 : 200,000 or 3:1 stat. miles to an inch. Publiée _ le Service Géographique de l’Armée. Sheets :—XI. Kairouan; XVII. Gafea; XVIII. El Ayaicha; XIX. Mahares; XX. Nefta; XXI. Touzer; XXV. Ras El Kelb; XXVI. Redjem Matong; XXVII. Douz; XXVIII. Ksar Médenenine; XXIX. Zarzis; XXXL El Merhotta; XXXII. Douirat. Price 70 centimes each sheet. AMERICA. Bolivia. Ididquez. Mapa Elemental de Bolivia por Eduardo Idiiquez, Ingeniero Civil. Scale 1: 3,400,000 or 53°4 stat. miles to an inch. Paz, 1894. Presented by the Author. Although somewhat roughly drawn, this map contains a great deal of useful information, and it has been carefully brought up to date. The limits of the republic, as well as those of departments, are laid down; the importance of towns or villages is indicated by the use of symbols; and railways in operation or projected, as well as roads, are shown. GENERAL. Exploration. Schrader. L’Année Cartographique. Supplément Annuel 4 toutes les publications de Géographie et de Cartographie dreseé et rédigé sous la direction de F. Schrader. Directeur des travaux cartographiques de la librairie Hachette et Cie. Quatritme Supplément. Contenant les Modifications Géogra- ag et Politiques de L’Année 1893, Deux feuilles de Cartes avec ‘exte Explicatif au dos. Librairie Hachette et Cie, Paris, 1894. Priz 2 francs. The first sheet contains a map of Central Asia, on which the route surveys of Mr. Littledale, Capt. Bower, Mr. Rockhill, and M. Obroutcheff are shown ; a map illustrat- ing Dr. Yersin’s journey in Cochin-China; and plans of the Kong rapids. A map of the state of Minas Geraes, on which the physical features appear considerably modified as the result of the investigations of M. Chrochkatt de Sé, is also given. The second sheet contains a map of Madagascar showing routes of recent explorers, a map show- ing Commandant Monteil’s | poe from Segusikoro to Lake Chad; Maistre’s route fron the Mobangi by way of Yola to the Niger; a map of Dahomey; and a map of Northern German Fast Africa, showing the routes of Dr. Baumann. Each sheet is accompanied by explanatory letterpress. : 95 96 NEW MAPS. The Wor The World-Wide Atlas of Modern Geography, Political and Physical. Containing one hundred and twelve plates and complete Index. With y an Introduction by J. Scott Keltie. Second Edition. W. & A. K. f Johnston, Edinburgh and London, 1894. Presented by the Publishers. This is a new edition of an atlas which has been favourably noticed on a previou occasion. The World. Habenicht, Justus Perthes’ See-Atlas. Eine Erginzung zu Justus Perthes’ Taschen- Atlas, entworfen und bearbeitet von Hermann Habenicht, 2+ kolorierte Karten in Kupferstich mit 127 Hafenplinen. Mit nautischen Notizen und Tabellen von Erwin Knipping. Gotha: Justus Perthes, 1894. Presented by the Author. This is a very useful little atlas for reference in all matters connected with seas oF oceans. The introduction contains some useful statistical information in connection with the maps, which have been produced in a most satisfactory manner, and the atlag is well suited to the purpose for which it has been published. Relief Maps. Klemm, Relief Practice Maps of Europe, British Isles, Western Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, United States, New England States, North Gentral States, Middle Atlantic States, South Atlantic States, and South America. By L. R. Klemm, pu.p., New York. Patented 1888. Copyrighted 1894 by Wm. tad Harison, New York. Price $1 each, or $10 per dozen. Presented m. Beverley Harison, Esq. In this series 0 bleak maps the relief has been poe. on specially prepared paper, by pressure. It is intended that they should be filled in by the student with the names of places, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc. They are very portable, and seem well suited for use in schools. CHARTS, Admiralty Charts. Hydrographic Department, Admiralty. Charts and Plans published by the Hydrographic Department, Admiralty, September and October, 1894. Presented by the Hydrographic Depart- ment, Admiralty. No. Inches. 1652m = 1-0 England, south coast :—Owers to Beachy Head. 33s. 6d. 2613 m = 0°49 France, north coast :—Cape Levi to Fécamp. 2s. 6d. 2612 m=0°5 France, north coast :—Fécamp to Boulogne. 2s. 6d. 2148m=10 France, north coast: yeux to Boulogne. 2s. 6d. 2142 m=1°0 Newfoundland, south &ast:—Ramea Islands to Indian harbour (plan Grand Bruit harbour). 3s. 6d. 1523 m = various. Ports and anchorages on the north coast of South America, 2s. 6d. 680 m = various. Anchorages on the east coast of Madagascar :—Tang- tang harbour, Hastie road and port Choiseul, An- gontsi road, Port Memoria, Vinambé bay. 1s. 6d, 2090m = 6°0 Gulf of Aden:—Salt lake, Bud Ali, Tajura, Etoile and Boutres anchorages. Is. 6d. 733m =20 Africa, Red Sea :—Hanfela bay. 1s. 6d. 2101 m = various. Plans in the Gulf of Siam:—Saracen bay, Pulo Panjang, Pulo Wai or Koh Kwang Noi. 1s. 2265m =5°0 Japan :—Kobé and Hiogo bays. 1s. 2128 m = various. Plans of the Kuril Islands. 1s. 6d. 1570 m = 0°25 New Hebrides islands:—Malo island to Efate island. 2s. 6d. 2225m = 1-0 New Hebrides:—Ambrym island. 2s. 6d. 1259 Fusan harbour :—Plan added, Commemoration bay. 1019 Yu Lin Kan bay, Gaalong bay, ete :—New Plans, Tai Chau or Tinhosa anchorages, Chun Lan harbour, Sama port. N.B.—It would greatly add to the value of the collection of Photo- graphs which has been established in the Map Roon, if all the Fellows of the Society who have taken photographs during their travels, would forward copies of them to the Map Curator, by whom they will be acknowledged. Should the donor have purchased the photographs, it will be useful for reference if the name of the photographer and his address are given. = : : \ INYAKOA / oShoshoma’'s | J | } Shipurio's A Sipololo’s) \ \ + 4 \ 31 ~ EN vChikaga 1a guanaky as ip Pall ¥ 4 ~ y THE GEOGR PHICAL JOURNAL, 1895. 34° 35° MAP OF MASHONALAND MANIKA including the Lowlands to the AMBEZI ano BEIRA Based upon surveys made by F.C. SELOUS and all other available authorities. SCALE, 1: 1,000,000. Englis lish Mules ... Mashonaland Railway (Now opened as tar as Chimoio) — M° Selows's Road from. Chimoio to Fort Salisbury. M” Selous: Principal Routes, September 1890 Anglo - Portuquese Boundary by the Convention of May 1891, as tor as detinitely arranged . | 33° | / | | . 2 ; | | Karwera\} | Pores. ged Iron SITUNG Situngwisis Tow? SI’ 7 al Bridg ? Umi o\ \ Selous Qlartley Hill a f | N ~ ‘Se 1878 Pk \ ¢ f ¥ 3 00 A 3) / MASSAU \ J ¢ Dero R Ga /X, ( ay! - y | 4 Gage = a Compiled by E. G. Ravenstein, | hey th Koes. \ \ | / oy | it 30° 3l = Well Populated Granite -— Longitude East 32° from Greenwich Published by the Royal Geographical Society, \ \ “ind HAN GA olnyamandi \/ %, \WNYA SJA N f j } G fr Shikwande* Longitude East 32° from Greenwich ; Published by the Royal Geographical Society, / \N YA SJA N O25 j —— 4 = 20° Dongonda~~ 33° 34° 35° ‘ Umbobo °_ a \ Capt. H paws TT EE E | | seotge Phihp & Son London & Laverp< \ \ \ x “il i , ~~ SE --- do. id mio NY, a 4 AT aN 9060 : ' ' > wat) ic X x % \ 4 | \ \ 4 BP i ; Cay i °300F U Ge \ é & ns : 10,/40 Publish F ‘ : < = | ' \ \ \ nie - MR. COL M* BROWN & THE SOU ~ IN THE Authors \ ' q ‘ f ~, ( oe An sy “A \ > \ \ H $975 \ - Sesle 1:500,000I Alatudes | | née ublshea, by the Geographical Sor katchewan BROWN by te Royal Geographical 4 4 4, \ 7 a 3 f \ \ \ — =——— | | Map shewing | K@~ MR. COLEMAN’S ROUTE TO YWN & THE SOURCES OF THE ATHABASCA RIVER Fr IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 4 18938. Scele £500,008 or 8 Statute Miles to 1 Inch Authors routes Alatudes in Feet 9050 Turner & have, 43 Brewer Street, Golden Sq. TV. ns | | | | at | ‘ | | | | | | j | | | | | | | : : ;